Daniel E. Williams. Sustainable Design. Ecology, architecture and planning. (анг. яз)

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was oriented askew with the front of the house. This wall was the same shape as the

16-foot-long, 7-foot-high window system. After the storm, the front of the house

was covered with leaves and debris three inches thick. The window system, which

corresponded to the wind shadow created by the courtyard wall, was without even

the slightest debris. A negative pressure, created by the wall, mitigated the wind

force.

Using wind as an informer of form is largely overlooked during the creative

process due to the scant and difficult-to-absorb scientific nature of the data. It is

especially difficult for designers to effectively interpret and apply the data that do

exist. A low-rise coastal architectural form typically does not relate to wind force

at all. Structures are often sited perpendicular to prevailing wind forces; this is dia-

metrically opposed to what the orientation would be if wind force were to be mit-

igated (at 45 degrees). The rule has been to increase the structural sizing to

withstand the force, rather than understanding the force as a design parameter

and partner. Adding structural size is not cost-effective and, in many cases, due to

the extreme forces of tornado-force winds, is not effective at all. After Hurricane

Andrew, a 16-foot-long section of 8" ⫻ 14" concrete tie beams was found several

blocks from its original location. The same was true after Hurricane Katrina, which

scraped entire communities down to their footings and even to bedrock.

Consideration must be given to the creative use of form to mitigate storm

energy, but location on the coastal “hot spot” makes it not just difficult but almost

impossible. Designing wind mitigation is effective, but only if the development loca-

tion is out of the main force of the wind; the lesson here is to build in smart places.

Strong winds have deconstructive impacts, but they also have potentially important

positive impacts on energy consumption—the forms and patterns can be designed

to provide for passive ventilation and cooling (Olgyay, 1992).

Existing studies of wind energy can be reduced to the simple principles of sur-

face-to-volume ratios and frictional surface qualities. The conditions, however,

become more complex with the unpredictable behavior within a hurricane system

(for example, in one instant a wall surface can receive the wind vector perpendicu-

lar to its surface as a positive pressure and reverse to a negative pressure as the storm

moves). Working with these forces would suggest that the structural form should

relate to the forces, not just withstand them. Examples in nature were all around

after these hurricanes—even palm trees on the beaches remained. But there were

other examples: an AirStream trailer in the middle of debris from everything else that

had been destroyed; housing protected by certain types of vegetation; and single-

family houses on interior lot sites where the corner structures were destroyed, yet

they remained relatively unscathed. There is logic to the siting of architecture, and

researching, understanding, and applying that knowledge to the design will have

measurable positive results.

There are many examples of design responding to considerable force. Tents can

be designed to withstand 200-mile-per-hour winds. Can architecture? The spoiler

on a race car helps keep the car from being airborne at speeds up to 600-plus miles

per hour—this thinking can be applied to the design of a spoiler on a roof parapet,

112 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

resulting in the wind forces actually pushing the roofing membrane onto the roof,

protecting the roofing membrane and consequently protecting the structure.

The opportunities to create an architecture specific to the site and its resident

energy are significant. The following relationships suggest a process to study the site

and its regional characteristics. It is helpful to organize the site issues and opportuni-

ties and view how one affects and connects with another.

Site to Region:

䊏

Determine the relationship between the site and the regional environment

and climate; chart how that climate corresponds to human comfort and nat-

ural resource needs.

䊏

Determine the urban, agricultural, and natural characteristics of the region.

How do they inform the design’s context, and how is the natural and historic

value of the place integrated into the design?

䊏

Determine the cultural and economic assets that exist regionally. How do

they impact the site? What is their relationship to the site?

䊏

Determine the climate characteristics of the bioregional system. How have

they helped form the general attributes of the biome?

䊏

Determine the role that natural disasters have as part of the form and pattern

of the land use, the climate, and the geological region. What impact do they

have on the pattern and form, the designs, and postdisaster planning?

Site to Site:

䊏

Determine the relationship between the site and its neighbors. Context, scale,

view corridors, materials, geometric relationships, neighborhood character,

and proportion can all inform design.

䊏

Determine the compatible relationships derived from the site and the envi-

ronmental analysis that can be introduced into design.

䊏

Determine the microclimates that are present. How can they help inform the

design decisions and eliminate nonsustainable methods?

䊏

Determine the indigenous vegetation types. What are their potential uses for

cooling, shading, storm protection, flood protection, soil improvement, and

water retention? How do they adapt to the climate? How do they impact

temperature, air movement, and humidity on the site?

䊏

Determine the site’s microclimate and how it is impacted by adjacent land

uses.

Building to Site:

䊏

Determine the synergistic relationships between the site’s climate and human

needs, comfort, and building layout. For example, use bubble diagrams (or a

similar method) to show attributes of the site’s natural characteristics (tem-

perature, wind, water, contours, noise, solar pathways), and evolve the build-

ing’s bubble diagram (functional layout) to integrate those attributes.

SITE DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 113

Resident vegetation is the

choice for natural

energies and sustainable

growth. This living

surface presents the

regional material for

living roofs and walls.

䊏

Determine the microclimate of the site. When does it approach human com-

fort zones—that is, temperature, air movement, and humidity and building-

user needs? Chart the times of the year when the microclimate and human

comfort zones are incompatible—when the microclimate is too hot, too cold,

too humid, too dry, too windy, too still, and so on. These times need special

attention.

䊏

Determine when adjustments need to be made due to humidity, air move-

ment, and temperature. Design the interventions necessary to make those

adjustments.

䊏

Determine the locations of the site’s microclimate and native vegetation (e.g.,

prevailing breezes, mosses, wetlands, impacts from off-site surroundings,

ground temperature for thermal-mass storage for the heating or cooling of

the space), and introduce them into the design solution. The living roof illus-

trates the use of a vegetation system natural to the climate; if the design

adopts this vegetation, it will grow naturally with no maintenance—design

the fit.

Connected thinking, in these terms, is important at the start and throughout the

project—both the questions and the answers have an impact at significant points in

the design process. The site analysis informs the design solution but, more impor-

tantly, informs the design program and any problem(s) to be solved. Sustainability is

114 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

SITE DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 115

Using the local,

indigenous moss created

a self-maintaining living

roof at no cost. Learning

what sustainable systems

exist in the region of the

site and creating the

environment for that to

happen can create free

and sustainable living

roofs.

not an add-on to the project; it is thoroughly integrated into the program and solu-

tion. An in-depth environmental analysis of the site informs the design in ways that

do the following:

䊏

Eliminate the need for the use of nonrenewables-based grid energy

䊏

Increase the efficient use of the site’s and the region’s renewable resources

䊏

Improve overall energy efficiency

䊏

Improve the building envelope’s longevity

䊏

Inform the design of the skin and envelope in order to be appropriate to the

climate

䊏

Reduce maintenance cost

䊏

Improve quality of life

䊏

Are essential to the larger community

䊏

Improve the healthy environment of the users

䊏

Act as a steward to the environment and the community

The knowledge gained from an in-depth analysis of the site, when integrated

into the design, can solve the design program without unnecessary mechanical and

environmental costs. Building designs that use the site energies are typically less

expensive to maintain, are better for the environment, and offer a higher quality of

experience for the user.

Sustainable Infrastructure

Buildings and project sites contain a considerable amount of infrastructure—for

example, structure, stormwater controls, sewers, water supply, heating, ventilating,

and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting, electrical circuitry, and data management,

among other elements. As a community ages, the infrastructure and utilities require

considerable retrofitting, as do the buildings. Because of this, the building itself can

be looking toward new approaches to solving the problems without using the old

infrastructure—for example, use of green roofs instead of new stormwater piping or

additional operable glass for ventilation and daylighting instead of new lighting or

mechanical ventilation.

Renovating and reusing existing infrastructure and infilling the urban grid are

two of the most effective sustainable design approaches. Much of the infrastructure

required for development already exists within senescent communities. Once reno-

vated, the buildings already have connections to transit, neighborhood context,

schools, libraries, civic center, police and fire protection, and utilities.

The Skin

The three elements of a building skin are floor, wall, and ceiling. The corresponding

structural elements are the foundation, column (wall), and roof. Each has a finish, a

116 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

material composition, and a structure; each impacts the flow of energy from one

point to another within the structure. The energy required to make and transport the

material from its raw state to the manufacturing and processing plant and then on

to the construction site is considerable. Therefore, any time a local material source

can be used or reused from a local stockpile, the construction practices are less

wasteful and the design better approaches sustainability.

The word envelope is often used when referring to a building enclosure. This

word, by chance or intent, contributes to the problem. An envelope is functionally

large enough to hold the required contents, and the contents, once folded or manip-

ulated, are sealed securely. But a building, if it is to act as a biologic entity, must be

wrapped in something more like real skin. These skins or layers should breathe, let

water out (or in for evaporative cooling), cool by evaporation, be closed to moisture

and cold—the skin should have a loose fit and be anchored for reuse. It is function-

ally layered rather than relying on one material to do it all.

A good example of a skin relating to temperature changes is in the way one lay-

ers clothing. A soft, comfortable, and easy-to-clean layer is placed next to the skin;

a next layer contains an air-confining weave or composite; and the final layer is a

moisture-, wind-, or solar-protective or -responsive layer. Each of these layers brings

to the composite a specific solution that, combined with the other layers, creates an

extremely effective, flexible, and symbiotic system.

Infill development reuses

infrastructure and builds

density within existing

urban cores.

THE SKIN 117

118 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

The character of a place is greatly increased by retrofitting existing structures for reuse and community pride. Funding infill and

brownfield sites is a local and national opportunity.

Consider the forces on a wall: contraction, expansion, heat, cold, moisture, rain,

sleet, snow, wind, ultraviolet light, humidity, sunlight—they are benign to the struc-

ture at certain times, sometimes helpful, and detrimental at others. If one material is

chosen to do it all, that material also excludes the desired to keep out the undesired.

The function of conditioning the air has become to keep everything out that is out

and everything in that is in, and then ventilate just enough to keep the air quality

within the OK range.

For example, if a wall is required to isolate the outside temperature from the

inside temperature and humidity, it must be insulated to stop the flow of energy

Layering is the most

effective way of dealing

with diurnal and

seasonal changes in

weather conditions. Can

buildings have skins

rather than envelopes

and can they be

dynamically layered to

suit changing

conditions?

THE SKIN 119

(temperature variation) from moving inside to outside, or vice versa. The penguin

uses this layered method and survives quite well in temperatures from minus 40 to

plus 40 degrees Celsius. The layered method also suggests the interior surface be a

renewable/reusable material that reflects light and sound, and carry the desired aes-

thetic. It should not be drywall or plaster or other single-use material.

The most powerful climatic events of regions—such as hurricanes, rainstorms,

temperature swings, and tornadoes—are often not used as design criteria, just as

engineering criteria. Yet these reoccurring disasters are normal conditions of the

coastal region and are, consequently, important to the sustainable design solution as

90 percent of the population lives within 10 miles of the coast.

The art of architectural planning has always had as its goal the combining of the

aesthetic and the functional. Architectural form today can be directed to provide

protection from natural disasters while providing for better, energy-efficient struc-

tures and communities.

Evolving a Sustainable Design Practice

䊏

Become ecologically literate by gaining a working conceptual knowledge of

biology, ecology, and the earth sciences that is locally and regionally specific

to the project site.

䊏

Evolve your professional practice to incorporate ecological literacy and pursue

at least one sustainable design project.

䊏

Select a staff member dedicated to sustainability issues.

䊏

Address economic, community, and environmental issues simultaneously

while designing.

䊏

Develop feedback loops to your own projects—learn and grow knowledge

with each project.

䊏

Establish a best resources list for research on sustainable materials and meth-

ods of construction.

䊏

Evolve sustainable issues into your project specifications.

Information that guides the architectural design practice is extremely dynamic.

With hundreds of new materials presented each week, it is little wonder that design-

ers are often overwhelmed with data. Practicing sustainable design adds still another

layer, and the information is growing rapidly. Fortunately, Web sites can supply con-

stant updates, and any office can create their own favorites and even add them as

an addition to home pages.

The foundation for creating a personal office database for sustainable design

can start with the following example acting as a foundation. This example suggests

the layout of the information following the “AIA B141 Owner / Architect Contract”

document outline. The categories are arranged in a manner that will allow the user

to move through the information in a logical and seamless manner that conforms to

the AIA contract criteria between owner and architect. The designer should research

120 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

Web sites and references and filter them to give the most direct and informative

result for the type of work. Keeping up with this trail of information proves to be a

daunting task, but over time it becomes an effective method of research that is eas-

ily updated, cross-referenced, and hyperlinked. The most successful searches are

those that begin with a list of links obtained from a recognized Web site or from

works cited at the end of a periodical or book pertinent to the project type. Regular

visits to these sites for updated links and other information will produce the most

successful dynamic knowledge base.

Environmentally responsive sites that contain good information explained in a

simplified manner are more valuable than having a large number of nondescriptive

sites. For example, EBN (Environmental Building News, www.buildinggreen.com) has

a simple and well-defined search engine based on CSI, Sweets, and basic consumer

subjects. This information is constantly updated by research that is not ethically con-

flicted by the presence of trade groups provided funding.

An additional suggestion in creating an office database is to keep it simple: for

example, find 3 materials that solve your problem rather than 30. This list can grow

with each project and your experience, but it is not necessary or possible to find the

answer, as that point is constantly changing.

Sustainable Design and Existing Buildings

Existing buildings, communities, towns, and regions are a considerable challenge to

sustainability. Virtually all of the built structures in the world need considerable

design renovation work to make them approach sustainability or even be marginally

energy efficient. In each existing structure, there is an opportunity to introduce sus-

tainable design principles, and in so doing, accomplish the following:

䊏

Introduce natural ventilation and daylighting.

䊏

Eliminate consumption of nonrenewables.

䊏

Provide a healthier, more participatory environment for users.

䊏

Redesign so existing structure can function unplugged.

In September 2003, the AIA Committee on the Environment (COTE) hosted an

intensive sustainable-design charrette. The meeting evaluated the AIA headquarters

building in Washington, D.C., developing a range of short- and long-term strategies

that would ideally integrate green design while improving the community link and

economic opportunities. These strategies were developed for consideration by the AIA

Board of Directors, and greening the AIA Headquarters became an AIA150 project.

The AIA leadership recognizes the importance of sustainability in “the culture of

innovation” that underpins its mission. In his introductory remarks to the team,

Chief Executive Officer Norman Koonce, FAIA, articulated the visibility and profile of

the AIA headquarters building to the nation. Enhancements to the facility can

embody the “AIA’s commitment to history, while addressing the economic, environ-

mental, and social opportunities that define sustainable development.”

SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND EXISTING BUILDINGS 121