Czichos H., Saito T., Smith L.E. (Eds.) Handbook of Metrology and Testing
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1188 Detailed Contents
Part B Chemical and Microstructural Analysis
4 Analytical Chemistry
Willie E. May, Richard R. Cavanagh, Gregory C. Turk, Michael Winchester,
John Travis, Melody V. Smith, Paul DeRose, Steven J. Choquette,
Gary W. Kramer, John R. Sieber, Robert R. Greenberg, Richard Lindstrom,
George Lamaze, Rolf Zeisler, Michele Schantz, Lane Sander,
Karen W. Phinney, Michael Welch, Thomas Vetter, Kenneth W. Pratt,
John H. J. Scott, John Small, Scott Wight, Stephan J. Stranick,
Ralf Matschat, Peter Reich ....................................................... 145
4.1 Bulk Chemical Characterization ......................................... 145
4.1.1 Mass Spectrometry ............................................. 145
4.1.2 Molecular Spectrometry ....................................... 147
4.1.3 Atomic Spectrometry .......................................... 156
4.1.4 Nuclear Analytical Methods ................................... 161
4.1.5 Chromatographic Methods .................................... 168
4.1.6 Classical Chemical Methods ................................... 173
4.2 Microanalytical Chemical Characterization ............................. 179
4.2.1 Analytical Electron Microscopy (AEM) ......................... 179
4.2.2 Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis .......................... 180
4.2.3 Scanning Auger Electron Microscopy ......................... 183
4.2.4 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope ............... 185
4.2.5 Infrared and Raman Microanalysis ........................... 186
4.3 Inorganic Analytical Chemistry: Short Surveys
of Analytical Bulk Methods .............................................. 189
4.3.1 Inorganic Mass Spectrometry ................................. 190
4.3.2 Optical Atomic Spectrometry .................................. 192
4.3.3 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) ...................... 192
4.3.4 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
and Photon Activation Analysis (PAA) ........................ 194
4.4 Compound and Molecular Specific Analysis:
Short Surveys of Analytical Methods .................................... 195
4.5 National Primary Standards – An Example
to Establish Metrological Traceability in Elemental Analysis .......... 198
References ........................................................................ 199
5 Nanoscopic Architecture and Microstructure
Koji Maeda, Hiroshi Mizubayashi ............................................... 205
5.1 Fundamentals ............................................................ 211
5.1.1 Diffraction and Scattering Methods .......................... 211
5.1.2 Microscopy and Topography .................................. 215
5.1.3 Spectroscopy ................................................... 226
5.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Structure Analysis ......................... 232
5.2.1 Long-Range Order Analysis ................................... 232
5.2.2 Medium-Range Order Analysis ............................... 235
5.2.3 Short-Range Order Analysis ................................... 237
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1189
5.3 Lattice Defects and Impurities Analysis ................................. 239
5.3.1 Point Defects and Impurities ................................. 240
5.3.2 Extended Defects .............................................. 252
5.4 Molecular Architecture Analysis ......................................... 258
5.4.1 Structural Determination by X-Ray Diffraction .............. 258
5.4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis ................ 259
5.4.3 Chemophysical Analysis ....................................... 267
5.5 Texture, Phase Distributions, and Finite Structures Analysis ......... 269
5.5.1 Texture Analysis ................................................ 269
5.5.2 Microanalysis of Elements and Phases ....................... 271
5.5.3 Diffraction Analysis of Fine Structures ....................... 273
5.5.4 Quantitative Stereology ....................................... 274
References ........................................................................ 277
6 Surface and Interface Characterization
Martin Seah, Leonardo De Chiffre ............................................... 281
6.1 Surface Chemical Analysis ............................................... 282
6.1.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) ............................ 285
6.1.2 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) ..................... 294
6.1.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) .................... 298
6.1.4 Conclusions ..................................................... 307
6.2 Surface Topography Analysis ............................................ 308
6.2.1 Stylus Profilometry ............................................ 312
6.2.2 Optical Techniques ............................................ 316
6.2.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy ................................... 318
6.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy ................................ 320
6.2.5 Parametric Methods ........................................... 321
6.2.6 Applications and Limitations of Surface Measurement ..... 322
6.2.7 Traceability ..................................................... 322
6.2.8 Summary ....................................................... 325
References ........................................................................ 326
Part C Materials Properties Measurement
7 Mechanical Properties
Sheldon M. Wiederhorn, Richard J. Fields, Samuel Low,
Gun-Woong Bahng, Alois Wehrstedt, Junhee Hahn, Yo Tomota,
Takashi Miyata, Haiqing Lin, Benny D. Freeman, Shuji Aihara,
Yukito Hagihara, Tetsuya Tagawa .............................................. 339
7.1 Elasticity ................................................................... 340
7.1.1 Development of Elasticity Theory ............................. 340
7.1.2 Definition of Stress and Strain,
and Relationships Between Them ............................ 341
7.1.3 Measurement of Elastic Constants in Static Experiments ... 344
Detailed Cont.
1190 Detailed Contents
7.1.4 Dynamic Methods of Determining Elastic Constants ........ 349
7.1.5 Instrumented Indentation as a Method
of Determining Elastic Constants ............................. 352
7.2 Plasticity .................................................................. 355
7.2.1 Fundamentals of Plasticity .................................... 355
7.2.2 Mechanical Loading Modes Causing Plastic Deformation ... 357
7.2.3 Standard Methods of Measuring Plastic Properties ......... 358
7.2.4 Novel Test Developments for Plasticity ....................... 365
7.3 Hardness .................................................................. 366
7.3.1 Conventional Hardness Test Methods
(Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers and Knoop) ...................... 368
7.3.2 Selecting a Conventional Hardness Test Method
and Hardness Scale ............................................ 374
7.3.3 Measurement Uncertainty in Hardness Testing
(HR, HBW, HV, HK) ............................................. 376
7.3.4 Instrumented Indentation Test (IIT) .......................... 378
7.4 Strength ................................................................... 388
7.4.1 Quasistatic Loading ............................................ 389
7.4.2 Dynamic Loading .............................................. 398
7.4.3 Temperature and Strain-Rate Effects ........................ 401
7.4.4 Strengthening Mechanisms for Crystalline Materials ....... 402
7.4.5 Environmental Effects ......................................... 404
7.4.6 Interface Strength: Adhesion Measurement Methods ...... 405
7.5 Fracture Mechanics ....................................................... 408
7.5.1 Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics ........................ 408
7.5.2 Fracture Toughness ............................................ 410
7.5.3 Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate .............................. 419
7.5.4 Fractography ................................................... 424
7.6 Permeation and Diffusion ............................................... 426
7.6.1 Gas Transport: Steady-State Permeation .................... 427
7.6.2 Kinetic Measurement .......................................... 429
7.6.3 Experimental Measurement of Permeability ................ 431
7.6.4 Gas Flux Measurement ........................................ 433
7.6.5 Experimental Measurement of Gas and Vapor Sorption .... 436
7.6.6 Method Evaluations ........................................... 440
7.6.7 Future Projections ............................................. 442
References ........................................................................ 442
8 Thermal Properties
Wolfgang Buck, Steffen Rudtsch ................................................ 453
8.1 Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat Capacity ...................... 454
8.1.1 Steady-State Methods ......................................... 456
8.1.2 Transient Methods ............................................. 458
8.1.3 Calorimetric Methods .......................................... 461
8.2 Enthalpy of Phase Transition, Adsorption and Mixing ................ 462
8.2.1 Adiabatic Calorimetry ......................................... 464
8.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry ............................ 465
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1191
8.2.3 Drop Calorimetry ............................................... 466
8.2.4 Solution Calorimetry ........................................... 467
8.2.5 Combustion Calorimetry ....................................... 468
8.3 Thermal Expansion and Thermomechanical Analysis ................. 469
8.3.1 Optical Methods ............................................... 469
8.3.2 Push Rod Dilatometry ......................................... 470
8.3.3 Thermomechanical Analysis .................................. 470
8.4 Thermogravimetry ........................................................ 471
8.5 Temperature Sensors ..................................................... 471
8.5.1 Temperature and Temperature Scale ......................... 471
8.5.2 Use of Thermometers .......................................... 474
8.5.3 Resistance Thermometers ..................................... 475
8.5.4 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers ............................... 477
8.5.5 Thermocouples ................................................. 478
8.5.6 Radiation Thermometers ...................................... 479
8.5.7 Cryogenic Temperature Sensors ............................... 480
References ........................................................................ 482
9 Electrical Properties
Bernd Schumacher, Heinz-Gunter Bach, Petra Spitzer, Jan Obrzut,
Steffen Seitz ....................................................................... 485
9.1 Electrical Materials ....................................................... 486
9.1.1 Conductivity and Resistivity of Metals ....................... 486
9.1.2 Superconductivity ............................................. 487
9.1.3 Semiconductors ................................................ 488
9.1.4 Conduction in Polymers ....................................... 490
9.1.5 Ionic Conductors ............................................... 490
9.1.6 Dielectricity .................................................... 491
9.1.7 Ferroelectricity and Piezoelectricity .......................... 492
9.2 Electrical Conductivity of Metallic Materials ............................ 493
9.2.1 Scale of Electrical Conductivity; Reference Materials ....... 493
9.2.2 Principal Methods ............................................. 494
9.2.3 DC Conductivity, Calibration of Reference Materials ........ 496
9.2.4 AC Conductivity, Calibration of Reference Materials ........ 496
9.2.5 Superconductivity ............................................. 497
9.3 Electrolytic Conductivity ................................................. 498
9.3.1 Scale of Conductivity .......................................... 498
9.3.2 Basic Principles ................................................ 499
9.3.3 The Measurement of the Electrolytic Conductivity .......... 501
9.4 Semiconductors ........................................................... 507
9.4.1 Conductivity Measurements .................................. 507
9.4.2 Mobility Measurements ....................................... 510
9.4.3 Dopant and Carrier Concentration Measurements .......... 513
9.4.4 I–V Breakdown Mechanisms ................................. 518
9.4.5
Deep Level Characterization and Minority Carrier Lifetime . 519
9.4.6 Contact Resistances of Metal-Semiconductor Contacts ..... 523
Detailed Cont.
1192 Detailed Contents
9.5 Measurement of Dielectric Materials Properties ....................... 526
9.5.1 Dielectric Permittivity ......................................... 527
9.5.2 Measurement of Permittivity ................................. 529
9.5.3 Measurement of Permittivity
Using Microwave Network Analysis........................... 532
9.5.4 Uncertainty Considerations ................................... 536
9.5.5 Conclusion ...................................................... 537
References ........................................................................ 537
10 Magnetic Properties
Joachim Wecker, Günther Bayreuther, Gunnar Ross, Roland Grössinger .... 541
10.1 Magnetic Materials ....................................................... 542
10.1.1 Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism, and Ferromagnetism ..... 542
10.1.2 Antiferromagnetism, Ferrimagnetism
and Noncollinear Magnetism ................................. 543
10.1.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Properties ............................. 544
10.1.4 Bulk Soft and Hard Materials ................................. 544
10.1.5 Magnetic Thin Films ........................................... 544
10.1.6 Time-Dependent Changes in Magnetic Properties .......... 545
10.1.7 Definition of Magnetic Properties
and Respective Measurement Methods ...................... 545
10.2 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials: (Standard) Measurement
Techniques for Properties Related to the B(H) Loop ................... 546
10.2.1 Introduction .................................................... 546
10.2.2 Properties of Hard Magnetic Materials ....................... 549
10.2.3 Properties of Soft Magnetic Materials ........................ 555
10.3 Magnetic Characterization in a Pulsed Field Magnetometer (PFM) ... 567
10.3.1 Industrial Pulsed Field Magnetometer ....................... 568
10.3.2 Errors in a PFM ................................................. 569
10.3.3 Calibration [3.1] ................................................ 573
10.3.4 Hysteresis Measurements on Hard Magnetic Materials ..... 575
10.3.5 Anisotropy Measurement ..................................... 576
10.3.6 Summary: Advantages and Disadvantages of PFM .......... 579
10.4 Properties of Magnetic Thin Films ....................................... 579
10.4.1 Saturation Magnetization, Spontaneous Magnetization ... 579
10.4.2 Magneto-Resistive Effects .................................... 583
References ........................................................................ 585
11 Optical Properties
Tadashi Itoh, Tsutomu Araki, Masaaki Ashida, Tetsuo Iwata,
Kiyofumi Muro, Noboru Yamada ................................................ 587
11.1 Fundamentals of Optical Spectroscopy ................................. 588
11.1.1 Light Source .................................................... 588
11.1.2 Photosensors ................................................... 590
11.1.3 Wavelength Selection ......................................... 592
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1193
11.1.4 Reflection and Absorption .................................... 594
11.1.5 Luminescence and Lasers ..................................... 598
11.1.6 Scattering ...................................................... 602
11.2 Microspectroscopy ........................................................ 605
11.2.1 Optical Microscopy ............................................. 605
11.2.2 Near-field Optical Microscopy ................................ 606
11.2.3 Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) .............................. 607
11.3 Magnetooptical Measurement ........................................... 609
11.3.1 Faraday and Kerr Effects ...................................... 609
11.3.2 Application to Magnetic Flux Imaging ....................... 610
11.4 Nonlinear Optics and Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Application ............ 614
11.4.1 Nonlinear Susceptibility ....................................... 614
11.4.2 Ultrafast Pulsed Laser ......................................... 618
11.4.3 Time-Resolved Spectroscopy .................................. 620
11.4.4 Nonlinear Spectroscopy ....................................... 623
11.4.5 Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy ....................... 624
11.5 Fiber Optics ............................................................... 626
11.5.1 Fiber Dispersion and Attenuation ............................ 627
11.5.2 Nonlinear Optical Properties .................................. 630
11.5.3 Fiber Bragg Grating ............................................ 632
11.5.4 Fiber Amplifiers and Lasers ................................... 635
11.5.5 Miscellaneous Fibers .......................................... 638
11.6 Evaluation Technologies for Optical Disk Memory Materials .......... 641
11.6.1 Evaluation Technologies for Phase-Change Materials ...... 641
11.6.2 Evaluation Technologies for MO Materials ................... 647
11.7 Optical Sensing ........................................................... 649
11.7.1 Distance Measurement ........................................ 649
11.7.2 Displacement Measurement .................................. 651
11.7.3 3-D Shape Measurement ...................................... 651
11.7.4 Flow Measurement ............................................ 652
11.7.5 Temperature Measurement ................................... 653
11.7.6 Optical Sensing for the Human Body ......................... 655
References ........................................................................ 656
Part D Materials Performance Testing
12 Corrosion
Bernd Isecke, Michael Schütze, Hans-Henning Strehblow .................... 667
12.1 Background ............................................................... 668
12.1.1 Classification of Corrosion ..................................... 669
12.1.2 Corrosion Testing .............................................. 670
12.2 Conventional Electrochemical Test Methods ........................... 671
12.2.1 Principles of Electrochemical Measurements
and Definitions ................................................ 671
12.2.2 Some Definitions .............................................. 673
Detailed Cont.
1194 Detailed Contents
12.2.3 Electrochemical Thermodynamics ............................ 674
12.2.4 Complex Formation ............................................ 676
12.2.5 Electrochemical Kinetics ...................................... 676
12.2.6 The Charge-Transfer Overvoltage ............................. 676
12.2.7 Elementary Reaction Steps in Sequence,
the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction ............................ 679
12.2.8 Two Different Reactions at One Electrode Surface .......... 681
12.2.9 Local Elements ................................................. 683
12.2.10 Diffusion Control of Electrode Processes ..................... 684
12.2.11 Rotating Disc Electrode (RDE)
and Rotating Ring-Disc Electrode (RRDE) .................... 686
12.2.12 Ohmic Drops .................................................... 689
12.2.13 Measurement of Ohmic Drops
and Potential Profiles Within Electrolytes ................... 690
12.2.14 Nonstationary Methods, Pulse Measurements .............. 692
12.2.15 Concluding Remarks ........................................... 695
12.3 Novel Electrochemical Test Methods .................................... 695
12.3.1 Electrochemical Noise Analysis ............................... 695
12.4 Exposure and On-Site Testing ........................................... 699
12.5 Corrosion Without Mechanical Loading ................................. 699
12.5.1 Uniform Corrosion ............................................. 700
12.5.2 Nonuniform and Localized Corrosion ........................ 701
12.6 Corrosion with Mechanical Loading ..................................... 705
12.6.1 Stress Corrosion ................................................ 706
12.6.2 Corrosion Fatigue .............................................. 709
12.7 Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking .......................... 714
12.7.1 Electrochemical Processes ..................................... 715
12.7.2 Theories of H-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking ........... 716
12.7.3 Environment and Material Parameters ...................... 717
12.7.4 Fractographic and Mechanical Effects of HISCC .............. 717
12.7.5 Test Methods ................................................... 718
12.8 High-Temperature Corrosion ............................................ 718
12.8.1 Main Parameters in High-Temperature Corrosion .......... 718
12.8.2 Test Standards or Guidelines ................................. 719
12.8.3 Mass Change Measurements .................................. 721
12.8.4 Special High-Temperature Corrosion Tests .................. 729
12.8.5 Post-Test Evaluation of Test Pieces ........................... 731
12.8.6 Concluding Remarks ........................................... 732
12.9 Inhibitor Testing and Monitoring of Efficiency ......................... 732
12.9.1 Investigation and Testing of Inhibitors ...................... 733
12.9.2 Monitoring of Inhibitor Efficiency ............................ 734
12.9.3 Monitoring Inhibition from Corrosion Rates ................. 736
References ........................................................................ 738
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1195
13 Friction and Wear
Ian Hutchings, Mark Gee, Erich Santner ........................................ 743
13.1 Definitions and Units .................................................... 743
13.1.1 Definitions ..................................................... 744
13.1.2 Types of Wear .................................................. 744
13.1.3 Units for Wear .................................................. 745
13.2 Selection of Friction and Wear Tests .................................... 747
13.2.1 Approach to Tribological Testing ............................. 747
13.2.2 Test Parameters ................................................ 748
13.2.3 Interaction with Other Degradation Mechanisms ........... 750
13.2.4 Experimental Planning and Presentation of Results ....... 750
13.3 Tribological Test Methods ................................................ 751
13.3.1 Sliding Motion ................................................. 751
13.3.2 Rolling Motion ................................................. 751
13.3.3 Abrasion ........................................................ 752
13.3.4 ErosionbySolidParticles ..................................... 753
13.3.5 Scratch Testing ................................................. 753
13.4 Friction Measurement .................................................... 754
13.4.1 Friction Force Measurement .................................. 754
13.4.2 Strain Gauge Load Cells and Instrumentation ............... 754
13.4.3 Piezoelectric Load Sensors .................................... 755
13.4.4 Other Force Transducers ....................................... 755
13.4.5 Sampling and Digitization Errors ............................. 756
13.4.6 Calibration ..................................................... 756
13.4.7 Presentation of Results ........................................ 758
13.5 Quantitative Assessment of Wear ....................................... 759
13.5.1 Direct and Indirect Quantities ................................ 759
13.5.2 Mass Loss ....................................................... 759
13.5.3 Dimensional Change .......................................... 759
13.5.4 Volume Loss .................................................... 760
13.5.5 Other Methods ................................................. 762
13.5.6 Errors and Reproducibility in Wear Testing .................. 762
13.6 Characterization of Surfaces and Debris ................................ 764
13.6.1 Sample Preparation ........................................... 764
13.6.2 Microscopy, Profilometry and Microanalysis ................ 765
13.6.3 Wear Debris Analysis .......................................... 767
References ........................................................................ 767
14 Biogenic Impact on Materials
Ina Stephan, Peter D. Askew, Anna A. Gorbushina, Manfred Grinda,
Horst Hertel, Wolfgang E. Krumbein, Rolf-Joachim Müller, Michael Pantke,
Rüdiger (Rudy) Plarre, Guenter Schmitt, Karin Schwibbert ................... 769
14.1 Modes of Materials – Organisms Interactions .......................... 770
14.1.1 Biodeterioration/Biocorrosion ................................ 770
14.1.2 Biodegradation ................................................ 771
Detailed Cont.
1196 Detailed Contents
14.1.3 Summary ....................................................... 771
14.1.4 Role of Biocides ................................................ 771
14.2 Biological Testing of Wood ............................................... 774
14.2.1 Attack by Microorganisms ..................................... 776
14.2.2 Attack by Insects ............................................... 781
14.3 Testing of Organic Materials ............................................. 789
14.3.1 Biodeterioration ............................................... 789
14.3.2 Biodegradation ................................................ 791
14.3.3 Paper and Textiles ............................................. 803
14.4 Biological Testing of Inorganic Materials ............................... 811
14.4.1 Inorganic Materials Subject to Biological Attack ............ 811
14.4.2 The Mechanisms of Biological Attack
on Inorganic Materials ........................................ 813
14.4.3 Organisms Acting on Inorganic Materials .................... 814
14.4.4 Biogenic Impact on Rocks ..................................... 818
14.4.5 Biogenic Impact on Metals, Glass, Pigments ................ 823
14.4.6 Control and Prevention of Biodeterioration ................. 824
14.5 Coatings and Coating Materials ......................................... 826
14.5.1 Susceptibility of Coated Surfaces to Fungal
and Algal Growth .............................................. 826
14.6 Reference Organisms ..................................................... 833
14.6.1 Chemical and Physiological Characterization ................ 833
14.6.2 Genomic Characterization ..................................... 834
References ........................................................................ 838
15 Material–Environment Interactions
Franz-Georg Simon, Oliver Jann, Ulf Wickström, Anja Geburtig,
Peter Trubiroha, Volker Wachtendorf ........................................... 845
15.1 Materials and the Environment ......................................... 845
15.1.1 Environmental Impact of Materials .......................... 845
15.1.2 Environmental Impact on Polymeric Materials .............. 848
15.2 Emissions from Materials ................................................ 860
15.2.1 General ......................................................... 860
15.2.2 Types of Emissions ............................................. 860
15.2.3 Influences on the Emission Behavior ........................ 861
15.2.4 Emission Test Chambers ....................................... 862
15.2.5 Air Sampling from Emission Test Chambers ................. 863
15.2.6 Identification and Quantification of Emissions ............. 864
15.2.7 Time Behavior and Ageing .................................... 866
15.2.8 Secondary Emissions .......................................... 869
15.3 Fire Physics and Chemistry .............................................. 869
15.3.1 Ignition ......................................................... 869
15.3.2 Combustion .................................................... 873
15.3.3 Fire Temperatures ............................................. 875
15.3.4 Materials Subject to Fire ...................................... 877
15.3.5 Fire Testing and Fire Regulations ............................. 878
References ........................................................................ 883
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1197
16 Performance Control: Nondestructive Testing and Reliability
Evaluation
Uwe Ewert, Gerd-Rüdiger Jaenisch, Kurt Osterloh, Uwe Zscherpel,
Claude Bathias, Manfred P. Hentschel, Anton Erhard, Jürgen Goebbels,
Holger Hanselka, Bernd R. Müller, Jürgen Nuffer, Werner Daum,
David Flaschenträger, Enrico Janssen, Bernd Bertsche, Daniel Hofmann,
Jochen Gäng ...................................................................... 887
16.1 Nondestructive Evaluation ............................................... 888
16.1.1 Visual Inspection .............................................. 888
16.1.2 Ultrasonic Examination: Physical Background .............. 889
16.1.3 Application Areas of Ultrasonic Examination ................ 894
16.1.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection .................................. 897
16.1.5 Liquid Penetrant Inspection .................................. 898
16.1.6 Eddy-Current Testing .......................................... 899
16.2 Industrial Radiology ...................................................... 900
16.2.1 Fundamentals of Radiology ................................... 901
16.2.2 Particle-Based Radiological Methods ........................ 906
16.2.3 Film Radiography .............................................. 907
16.2.4 Digital Radiological Methods ................................. 908
16.2.5 Applications of Radiology for Public Safety and Security ... 914
16.3 Computerized Tomography – Application to Organic Materials ...... 915
16.3.1 Principles of X-ray Tomography .............................. 915
16.3.2 Detection of Macroscopic Defects in Materials .............. 917
16.3.3 Detection of the Damage of Composites on the Mesoscale:
Application Examples ......................................... 918
16.3.4 Observation of Elastomers at the Nanoscale ................ 919
16.3.5 Application Assessment of CT with a Medical Scanner ...... 920
16.4 Computerized Tomography – Application to Inorganic Materials .... 921
16.4.1 High-Energy CT ................................................. 921
16.4.2 High-Resolution CT ............................................ 921
16.4.3 Synchrotron CT ................................................. 922
16.4.4 Dimensional Control of Engine Components ................ 923
16.5 Computed Tomography –
Application to Composites and Microstructures ........................ 927
16.5.1 Refraction Effect ............................................... 927
16.5.2 Refraction Techniques Applying X-ray Tubes ................ 928
16.5.3 3-D Synchrotron Refraction Computed Tomography ........ 929
16.5.4 Conclusion ...................................................... 932
16.6 Structural Health Monitoring – Embedded Sensors ................... 932
16.6.1 Basics of Structural Health Monitoring ....................... 932
16.6.2 Fiber-Optic Sensing Techniques .............................. 935
16.6.3 Piezoelectric Sensing Techniques ............................. 945
16.7 Characterization of Reliability ........................................... 949
16.7.1 Statistical Treatment of Reliability ........................... 951
16.7.2 Weibull Analysis ............................................... 952
16.7.3 Reliability Test Strategies ..................................... 956
16.7.4 Accelerated Lifetime Testing .................................. 959
Detailed Cont.