Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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activity. Commonly used mold inhibitors are sorbic

acid and its salts (e.g., potassium sorbate). Levels of

addition will vary according to the shelf-life require-

ments, with upper limits being controlled by legisla-

tion. In practice, high levels of addition will lead to

changes in product flavor which may make the prod-

uct unacceptable to consumers.

0053 The effect of mold inhibitors in cake making is

enhanced by the effect of water activity. An example

of this relationship is given for potassium sorbate in

Table 4.

See also: Cakes: Methods of Manufacture; Chemistry of

Baking; Eggs: Use in the Food Industry; Emulsifiers:

Uses in Processed Foods; Flour: Dietary Importance;

Leavening Agents; Milk: Dietary Importance; Powdered

Milk: Characteristics of Milk Powders; Sweeteners:

Intensive; Others

Further Reading

Bent AJ (ed.) (1997) Technology of Cakemaking, 6th edn.

London: Blackie Academic & Professional.

Cauvain SP and Cyster J (1996) Sponge cake technology.

CCFRA Review No. 2.

Cauvain SP and Young LS (2000) Bakery Food Manufac-

ture and Quality: Water Control and Effects. Oxford,

UK: Blackwell Science.

Cauvain SP and Young LS (2001) Baking Problems Solved.

Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.

Cauvain SP, Hodge DG, Muir DD and Dodds NJ (1976)

Improvements in and Relating to Treatment of Grain.

British patent no. 1 444 173. London, UK: HSMO.

Cauvain SP, Gough BM and Whitehouse ME (1976) The

role of starch in baked goods: part 2. The influence of

purification procedure on the surface properties of the

granule. Die Starke 41: 461–467.

Doe CAF and Russo JVB (1968) Flour Treatment Process.

British patent no. 1 110 711. London, UK, HSMO.

Gough BM, Whitehouse ME and Greenwood CT (1978)

The role and function of chlorine in the preparation of

high-ratio cake flour. CRC Critical Review in Food Sci-

ence and Nutrition 10: 91–113.

Grover DW (1947) The keeping properties of confectionery

as influenced by its vapour pressure, Journal of the Soci-

ety of Chemistry and Industry 66: 201–205.

Kent NL and Evers AD (1994) Kent’s Technology of

Cereals, 4th edn. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.

Sahi SS (1999) Influence of aeration and emulsifiers on

cake batter rheology and textural properties of cakes.

In: Campbell GM, Webb C, Pandiella SS and Niranjan K

(eds) Bubbles in Food, St Paul, USA: AACC. pp.

263–271.

Spies RD and Hoseney RC (1982) Effects of sugar on starch

gelatinisation. Cereal Chemistry 59: 128–131.

Street CA (1991) Flour Confectionery Manufacture.

London, UK: Blackie Academic & Professional.

Young LS, Davies PR and Cauvain SP (1998) Cakes –

getting the balance right. In: Milne R, Macintosh A

and Bramer M (eds) Proceedings of ES98, the Eight-

eenth Annual International Conference of the British

Computer Society Specialist Group on Expert Systems,

pp. 42–55. London, UK: Springer.

Methods of Manufacture

S P Cauvain, Campden and Chorleywood Food

Research Association, Chipping Campden, UK

Aims of Mixing

0001As discussed above, gluten formation is undesirable in

cakes and is limited, in part, by the formulation, most

notably high levels of sugar, liquid, and fat. Gluten

formation may also be limited by the methods used to

mix cake batters and the avoidance of any processing

steps that may induce gluten formation. As a broad

generalization, cake batters can be considered as fat,

or oil, in water emulsion systems. The aqueous phase

contains the dissolved sugar and suspended flour par-

ticles. In cake-batter systems, air bubbles are incorpor-

ated and held in the fat phase rather than the aqueous

phase. However, as the batter warms during baking,

the air bubbles transfer from the fat to the aqueous

phase foam and expand. Later in the baking process,

the foam sets to yield the familiar cake structure.

0002The aims of cake-batter mixing can be summarized

as follows:

0003to uniformly disperse the ingredients;

0004to incorporate and stabilize the necessary air

bubble nuclei; and

0005to minimize gluten formation.

The main manufacturing methods for cakes are

mostly based on the mixing process that is used.

There are two main types:

0006Multistage, in which various ingredients are mixed

together as subcomponents before blending into

the final batter. The aims of multistage mixing

methods are to minimize gluten formation and to

aid with the incorporation and stabilization of air

tbl0004 Table 4 Approximate increases in mold-free shelf-life with

1340 p.p.m. potassium sorbate in cake (pH 6.5)

Wateractivity Extradays at 21



0.92 2.5

0.86 8.0

0.80 40.0

756 CAKES/Methods of Manufacture

bubbles in batter. Such methods are traditional

and probably derive from days when ingredient

qualities were less reliable than today.

0007 All-in, in which all of the ingredients are placed

in the mixing bowl at the same time and beaten

together. All-in or single-stage mixing relies on

standardized ingredients being available.

Mixing Methods

Sugar–Batter Processes

0008 The essential features of this process are:

0009 Creaming of the fat and sugar together. The sugar

crystals aid the incorporation of air bubbles into

the mixture, and the density falls as the mixing

continues. This will be seen as a progressive

‘whitening’ of the mixture. The ideal creaming

time depends on the type of fat being used,

with higher-melting-point fats requiring longer

creaming times. A medium speed, about 150 rpm,

is typically used.

0010 The addition of egg to the fat–sugar mixture in

four to six individual portions with some blending

between the addition of each portion. The aim

should be the uniform dispersion of the egg with-

out de-aeration of the mixture. It is important that

the egg should not be at a lower temperature

than the mixture, otherwise separation of the fat

from the mixture may occur – this is known in the

baking industry as ‘curdling.’ Additions of egg are

usually made at low speed, typically around

50 rpm, with subsequent blending on a medium

speed for short lengths of time.

0011 The addition of the flour and other ‘dry’ ingredi-

ents with subsequent blending. The mixing time at

this stage will be short and only sufficient to blend

in the flour. A low speed is used.

0012 The addition of final liquids, e.g., milk and water,

blended in at low speed.

0013 The addition of dried fruit, if required.

Flour–Batter Process

1.0014 The fat and a portion of the flour (typically three-

quarters of the flour mass) are creamed together at

low speed for about 10 min, during which time, air

is incorporated into the mixture, and the density

falls.

0015 The egg and sugar are whisked separately at high

speed.

0016 The fat–flour and egg–sugar are blended at low

speed.

0017 Any water or other liquids are blended into the

mixture at low speed.

0018The remaining flour and other dry ingredients

(e.g., skimmed milk powder, salt, and baking

powder) are blended into the mixture at low

speed.

Egg-separated Process

1. 0019The fat, a portion of the flour (typically three-

quarters of the flour mass), salt, and other dry

ingredients are creamed together at low speed.

0020The egg is separated into its white and yolk com-

ponents.

0021The egg white and sugar are whisked together at

high speed to form an aerated foam.

0022The egg yolk and additional water or milk are

blended into the egg white foam before being

blended with the fat cream.

0023The remaining flour is blended into the mixture at

low speed.

Boiled Process

1. 0024The egg and sugar are whisked at high speed to

form a foam.

0025The fat is heated.

0026The flour and other dry ingredients are blended

into the hot fat.

0027The egg foam and the fat-flour blend are mixed

together.

The final batter temperature is around 35–40



The method is not usually considered suitable for

recipes that contain baking powder because the

high temperature causes premature release of carbon

dioxide.

All-in Process

0028Using this method, all of the ingredients are placed

into the mixing bowl and blended together at low and

medium speed. The all-in method is particularly suit-

able for use with recipes that contain an emulsifier.

Sponge Cakes

0029Sponge cakes may be made with a simple formulation

of flour, whole eggs, and sugar. The eggs and sugar

are whisked together at high speed, typically 200–

300 rpm. During this whisking process, large

numbers of minute air bubbles are incorporated into

the batter. Without some form of stablization, the air

bubbles occluded during mixing would rapidly

coalesce, rise to the surface of the batter, and be lost.

In this sponge system, the surface-active proteins of

the egg white and the lipoproteins migrate to the

interface with the air occluded during beating, and

form a protective film around the nascent gas bubbles

and prevent them coalescing. When a stable foam has

CAKES/Methods of Manufacture 757

been formed, the flour is added carefully, trying not to

de-aerate the foam. After depositing, the bubbles

expand as the batter temperature rises in the oven,

and eventually, just as the mass of the batter begins to

set, the bubbles burst into one another to form the

porous cake structure.

0030 The addition of a small level of fat or oil to the

recipe disrupts the interfacial films and prevents

the egg proteins from stablizing the air bubbles. The

result is a less well-aerated batter and restricted cake

volume. To overcome this potential loss of volume,

the fat can be melted and carefully added at the end of

the mixing process once a stable foam had been

formed. More commonly fat-enriched sponge cakes

are made with the addition of glycerol monostearate

(GMS), which displaces the egg proteins at the gas-

bubble interface and provides the stabilizing role.

0031 GMS controls not only the size of the air bubbles

(see Figure 1) but also the quantity of air mixed into

the batter. High levels of GMS allow large quantities

of air to be incorporated into the batter in the cold,

but unless there is a sufficient amount to stabilize the

bubbles during baking, the sponge inevitably will

collapse. Measurement of bubble sizes in cake batters

at ambient temperatures shows that this property is

governed, in part at least, by the amount of GMS

present. However, an excess of GMS above an opti-

mum restricts bubble coalescence during baking so

that the foam remains intact and tends to shrink back

on cooling. This gives the cakes an unacceptable

wrinkled surface.

Delayed Soda Process

0032 In some more traditional sponge making processes

using fast-acting baking acids, the addition of the

sodium bicarbonate in the recipe may be delayed to

the end of the mixing cycle. This delayed addition of

sodium bicarbonate insures that losses of carbon

dioxide before baking are minimized.

Mixing Equipment

Planetary Mixers

0033The most common form of cake batter mixer is the

vertical form that comprises a removable bowl in

which the mixing tool describes a planetary motion.

Typically, the mixing tools are removable, with the

most common forms being a flat beater or a wire

whisk. The former is commonly used with batters

containing higher fat levels in the recipe, whereas

the latter is mostly used with sponge batters. Planet-

ary mixers can operate over a range of mixing speeds

(usually three).

Horizontal Mixers

0034The mixing chamber of this type of mixer is fixed

within the mixer frame but can be rotated through a

limited arc to allow for the discharge of the cake

batter. The mixing tools revolve around a horizontal

axis within the mixing chamber. The chamber com-

prises two U-shaped sections with a single mixing

blade operating in each section. Two mixing speeds

are usually possible with this type of mixer. Ingredi-

ents are fed in from the top of the mixer.

Pressure Whisks

0035In this type of machine, the mixing is based on a

rotating whisk, vertically mounted, and moving

within a sealed mixing chamber. Since the chamber

is sealed, it is possible to vary the pressure of the air

within the mixer headspace during the mixing cycle.

This increases the quantity of air that can be incorpor-

ated into the batter and so reduces batter density.

Pressure whisks are most commonly used in the pro-

duction of low-density sponge batters. The pressure

whisk may be operated over a range of mixing speeds.

Discharge of the batter from the mixing chamber may

be under pressure direct to a depositor.

Continuous Mixers

0036Continuous mixers are most commonly used in

larger-scale cake-batter production. The mixing

chamber is small compared with other cake mixing

machines, because the batter residence time for

mixing is in the order of 10–20 s. The mixing tool

comprises a form of round-sectioned, double-sided

rotor covered in small, rectangular pins able to rotate

in a round-shaped mixing chamber with similar-

shaped pins projecting from the inner walls. The

effect is to create a series of very narrow gaps through

which the batter can pass, and the action provides an

intimate mix. At the same time as being thoroughly

mixed, the batter is aerated by the injection of air

under pressure. The high shear of the mixing action

0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75

Level of GMS (%)

Bubble size (µm)

fig0001 Figure 1 Effect of glycerol monostearate on gas-bubble size in

sponge cake batter.

758 CAKES/Methods of Manufacture

aids the dispersion of the air and the formation of

smaller and more uniformly sized gas bubbles in the

batter.

0037 Mixing and batter aeration in continuous mixers

are far more controlled than with any other type of

cake mixer. All of the ingredients must be blended to

form a slurry on a separate mixer before being fed to

the holding tank of the continuous mixer. Aeration of

the slurry is avoided. The residence time of the batter

in the mixing head is a function of the throughput

rate. The speed of the rotor may be varied. Levels of

aeration can be varied by adjusting the air flow rate

into the mixing chamber.

0038 Continuous mixers may be used with most forms of

cake batter, except fruited varieties, and also for the

aeration of creams, meringue, and some forms of

sugar confectionery.

High-speed, Vertical Mixers

0039 High-speed, vertical mixers are most commonly used

in the production of bread and other fermented

doughs. However, they may be used in the production

of pastes and cake batters. Mixing times are very

short, typically less than 3 min, and the levels of

aeration are lower than those achieved with most

other mixer types.

Batter Handling and Depositing

0040 The low viscosity and fluidity of most cake batters

make them relatively easy to handle. However, batter

handling should be kept to a minimum, because,

while in motion, there is the potential for de-aeration

of the batter, especially the loss of carbon dioxide gas

from the baking powder reaction.

0041 Individual portions of many cake batters are

deposited into some form of container for baking.

Typically, the baking container will be lined with

greaseproof or silicone paper to provide easy release

of the product after baking. Product shapes can vary,

though round or rectangular are the most common.

Some cake batter types, e.g., Swiss roll and sponge

drops, may be deposited directly on to the oven band

or sheet for baking.

Cake Baking

0042 Cake batters may be baked in most oven types, e.g.,

deck, rack, and continuous. The baking temperatures

are lower than used for bread baking and vary

according to the type and size of cake. In many

ovens, heat input will be greater at the bottom of

the product than at the top. High heat inputs directed

on to the top of the baking product commonly lead to

problems with product shape and surface color.

Secondary Processing

0043While many cake types may be eaten in their baked

form, a large number of cake products are combined

with other food products to present consumers with a

wide variety of products. Examples of other food

products that may be used as a filling or topping

with cakes include, dairy and nondairy creams, choc-

olate, icing and fondants, jams, and jellies.

Packaging

0044Some form of packing is required to hold cakes, pro-

tect them from microbial contamination, and prevent

moisture losses that would have an adverse effect on

the cake-eating qualities. Product packs take many

forms, but most often, the material used will be

impermeable to moisture to prevent drying out of

the product. Wrapping composite cake products in

moisture impermeable film may lead to problems of

moisture migration between components, unless steps

are taken to adjust the water activities of individual

components.

Storage

0045The shelf-life of cake products is directly related to

the storage conditions: the warmer the storage tem-

perature, the shorter the microbial shelf-life and the

greater the problem with moisture migration between

the cake and other components (e.g., cream). Low-

temperature storage is particularly important for

dairy cream-filled cakes because of their susceptibility

to bacterial growth. Refrigerated storage does not

accelerate cake staling (unlike the situation with

bread). Cake staling proceeds fastest with cake at

temperatures around 25



See also: Cakes: Chemistry of Baking; Celiac (Coeliac)

Disease; Emulsifiers: Uses in Processed Foods

Further Reading

Bent AJ (ed.) (1997) Technology of Cakemaking, 6th edn.

London: Blackie Academic & Professional.

Cauvain SP and Cyster J (1996) Sponge cake technology.

In: CCFRA Review No. 2, Chipping Campden, UK:

CCFRA.

Cauvain SP and Young LS (2000) Bakery Food Manufac-

ture & Quality: Water Control and Effects. Oxford:

Blackwell Science.

Street CA (1991) Flour Confectionery Manufacture.

London: Blackie Academic & Professional.

CAKES/Methods of Manufacture 759

Chemistry of Baking

J L DesRochers, K D Seitz and C E Walker, Kansas

State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

Principal Ingredients in Cake Batter

0001 Flour is the most important ingredient in cakes, func-

tioning primarily to establish crumb structure. Cake

flour is milled from soft white or red wheat with

low protein and ash (mineral) levels and has a fine

particle size. In the USA, cake flour is commonly

treated with chlorine gas, causing hydrolytic depoly-

merization of the starch molecules, which increases

the water-holding capacity of the flour. During

mixing, proper gluten development is critical, to

insure a fine foam structure without excessive

toughening. Protein level and type and mixing pro-

cedure are key factors for producing cakes with

desirable crumb texture. The optimal specifications

for a typical cake flour are: protein content

8.5 + 0.5%, ash content 0.36 + 0.04%, pH

4.7 + 0.2, and average particle size 10 + 0.5 mm.

(See Flour: Roller Milling Operations; Analysis of

Wheat Flours; Dietary Importance.)

0002 Shortening performs three basic roles in cakes.

First, it aids in aeration or leavening of the batter

and finished cake by entrapping air during the

creaming process. These minute air cells provide the

nucleus for bubble expansion via steam and carbon

dioxide during baking. Second, shortening coats the

protein and starch particles, preventing hydration

and formation of a continuous gluten–starch net-

work. Third, it emulsifies liquids in the batter, which

increases the moisture of the crumb. The last two

functions contribute to a soft, tender crumb texture.

(See Fats: Uses in the Food Industry.)

0003 Eggs perform a variety of functions in cake pro-

duction, providing structure, volume, tenderness,

and nutritional quality to the product. They act as a

binding agent due to their high protein content

and ability to form a complex network with gluten.

They contribute to cake volume and structure by

their ability to be whipped into a relatively stable

foam. Upon heating, the proteins are denatured,

thus setting and stabilizing the crumb structure. The

yolk portion of the egg imparts an emulsifying

and tenderizing effect because of the high lipid and

lecithin content. Eggs help stabilize the emulsion,

retain gas generated by the leaveners, and prevent

air cell coalescence in the batter, resulting in a uni-

form crumb grain and desirable texture. Eggs also

add a mild but distinctive flavor and color (from the

yolk) and enrich cake’s nutritive value. (See Eggs:

Dietary Importance.)

0004Chemical leavening agents are added to aerate the

batter and produce a light, tender, porous product. The

porosity of the batter directly translates into good

volume, uniform cell structure, bright crumb color,

tender texture, and overall eating quality of the finished

cake. In lieu of yeast, chemically leavened cakes utilize

sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) plus an acidic agent

to generate carbon dioxide (CO

) gas when combined

in the presence of water. (See Leavening Agents.)

0005Baking powders are a combination of sodium

bicarbonate and the salt of a weak acid (see Table 1

for examples). Baking powder should yield no less

than 12% carbon dioxide based on the weight of the

product. Starch or flour may be added as a diluent to

standardize the baking powder’s strength.

0006Baking powders are classified by their reaction

rates as fast, slow, or double-acting. The fast-acting

types release most of their available carbon dioxide

within the first few moments of contact with liquid. If

these batters or doughs are not processed very

quickly, the gas will be lost before the structure is

set and the volume will decrease significantly.

0007Slow-acting baking powders do not react at low

temperatures and therefore require oven heat to re-

lease gas. Double-acting types react partially at low

temperature, but need higher temperatures to com-

plete the reaction. The double-reacting powders are

most commonly used in commercial cake production.

tbl0001 Table 1 Acidic agents used in leavening

Acid Formula Neutralization value

Monocalcium phosphate (MCP) Ca(H

)

H

O80

Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate (AMCP) Ca(H

)

83.5

Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) Na

Sodium aluminum phosphate (SALP) NaH

(PO

)

4H

O 100

Monopotassium tartrate (cream of tartar) KHC

Sodium aluminum sulfate (SAS) Al

(SO

)

Na

100

Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCP) CaHPO

2H

O33

Glucono-d-lactone (GDL) C

760 CAKES/Chemistry of Baking

0008 The neutralization value (NV) is used to give the

proper balance of the alkaline and acidic agents. The

NV indicates the amount of sodium bicarbonate re-

quired to release all the available carbon dioxide from

100 units of the acid leavener (Table 1). NVs enable

the formulator to achieve the desired batter pH,

which is important to crumb structure and grain,

color, and flavor.

0009 Sugar acts primarily as a sweetener in cakes and aids

in air incorporation during creaming. In the mid-

1900s, emulsified shortenings enabled bakers to pro-

duce richer cakes with higher sugar and liquid levels.

These high-ratio cakes generally contain 120% sugar

based on flour weight, and have an extended shelf-life

and tender texture. The type and form of sugar used

are also important; liquid sugar or syrup acts as a

moistener whereas crystalline or granular sugar func-

tions as a drier. Granulation affects how quickly the

sugar dissolves and generally increases cake volume as

granulation becomes finer. Invert or reducing sugars,

e.g., high-fructose corn syrup, honey, or molasses, can

affect the crust and crumb color, and texture.

0010 Milk, either in fluid or dry powdered form, is a

source of protein and lactose, which aid in crust

development and browning reactions. Milk also

stabilizes the foam and contributes to cake structure.

0011 Finally, salt is added as a flavor enhancer.

0012 Formula balance of the major cake ingredients –

flour, shortening, sugar and eggs – is important to

produce a cake with good volume, grain, texture,

and eating properties. Some general guidelines for

high-ratio cakes are as follows:

0013 The weight of the sugar should be greater than the

flour weight

0014 The weight of the eggs should exceed the weight of

the shortening

0015 The weight of the total liquids (milk, eggs, and/or

water) should be slightly greater than the sugar weight

0016 Some exceptions to these rules include foam-type

cakes, i.e., angel food or sponge which contains little

or no shortening. In these cakes, whipped egg whites,

sugar, and flour are the primary ingredients, along

with some minor ingredients. In a typical angel food

cake formulation (Table 2), the weight of the sugar is

usually equal to the weight of the egg whites, and the

flour is approximately one-third the weight of the

sugar. Figure 1 shows the relationship between basic

ingredient composition and cake type.

0017 Sponge cakes use whole egg instead of only egg

whites. To minimize the toughening effect of the

eggs, an equal or slightly higher amount of sugar is

added. The liquid and flour levels are balanced

around the eggs and sugar. In general, the total liquids

should be 25% greater than the weight of the sugar.

Flour level should be less than the weight of either the

sugar or eggs. Combined, the weight of eggs plus

flour should exceed the weight of sugar plus nonegg

liquids (milk or water). A typical sponge cake formula

is listed in Table 3.

0018Pound cake is one of the oldest types of cake,

deriving its name from the original recipe which

called for 1-lb (0.45-kg) increments each of flour,

butter, eggs, and sugar. The expense of butter and

eggs prompted commercial bakers to modify the for-

mula, producing a lighter cake with improved volume

and eating quality (Table 4).

0019The modified pound cake formula led to the basic

yellow or white layer cake (Table 5). Unlike yellow

layer cake, no yolks are used for white layer cake.

These layer cakes adapt readily to many formula

variations by the addition of fruits, nuts, spices,

cocoa, etc. In chocolate layer cakes, the sugar level

appears higher, which is due to a reduction in the

flour level when cocoa is added. Functionally, low-

fat cocoa acts much like flour. High-ratio cakes

evolved from layer cakes through the use of emulsi-

fied shortenings and may contain as much as 140%

sugar (based on flour weight).

Chemical and Physical Changes during

Mixing

0020Mixing plays an important role in the production of

quality of batter-type cakes. The objectives of mixing

are to disperse the various ingredients uniformly, and

to incorporate air into the batter while minimizing

gluten development. There are four different basic

methods of mixing: creaming, blending, single-

stage, and foam-type methods.

0021In the creaming, or conventional method, fat and

sugar are mixed at low to medium speeds until thor-

oughly blended and aerated. Large volumes of air are

incorporated into the fat phase in the form of small air

cells and the sugar crystals are encased in the

shortening. Next the eggs are added with continuous

beating until the mixture is fluffy and well aerated.

Last, the flour and milk are added. The main advan-

tages of this method are: (1) the large number of small

tbl0002Table 2 Angel food cake formula

Ingredient Baker’s %

Flour 100

Sugar 280

Egg white 280

Salt 4

Cream of tartar 4

Vanilla 5

Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour.

CAKES/Chemistry of Baking 761

air cells in the batter; and (2) gluten development is

limited due to delayed hydration and solubilization of

the fat-coated flour and sugar particles.

0022The blending method consists of two separate

mixing steps. The shortening and flour are beaten

until fluffy in one bowl and the eggs and sugar are

whipped separately in a second bowl. These two mix-

tures are blended together followed by slow addition

of the milk. This method produces a cake with a very

fine grain and uniform texture. Compared with the

creaming method, aeration is lessened, thus reducing

cake volume, but higher sugar and liquid levels are

possible.

tbl0003 Table 3 Sponge cake formula

Ingredient Baker’s %

Flour 100

Sugar 95

Corn syrup 12

Eggs 105

Water 12

Vanilla 3

Baking powder 1.5

Salt 0.75

Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour.

tbl0004 Table 4 Commercial pound cake formula

Ingredient Baker’s %

Flour 100

Sugar 100

Shortening 50

Whole eggs 50

Milk 50

Vanilla 2

Salt 1.5

Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour.

tbl0005Table 5 Ordinary yellow cake formula

Ingredient Baker’s %

Flour 100

Sugar 85

Shortening 45

Whole eggs 50

Milk 50

Baking powder 2.5

Salt 2

Flavor 1.5

Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour.

In the USA, sugar would run to 120 or more.

300

250

200

150

100

Angel food

High-ratio

Rich fruit

Chocolate

% Sugar

% Shortening

% Liquid

280

214

110

190

150

fig0001 Figure 1 Relationship between cake type and basic composition based on 100 parts flour.

762 CAKES/Chemistry of Baking

0023 The single-stage mixing method was devised to

reduce the number of steps and shorten the mixing

time requirements. All the major ingredients are

mixed together at once. Although the procedure is

simple, the texture and stability are sacrificed some-

what. This method is generally used for premixed box

cakes, but not by the wholesale trade.

0024 Unlike shortening-based cakes, foam cake mixing

depends on air incorporation in an egg–protein

matrix for volume and structure development. Egg

whites plus sugar are whipped into a stiff foam, into

which the flour and other dry ingredients are gently

folded. In angel food cake batters, the egg whites

must be fat-free to achieve maximum volume; how-

ever, in sponge cakes where whole eggs are used, a

lower-volume, emulsified foam is formed.

0025 The batter specific gravity is a measure of how

much air has been incorporated into the batter during

mixing. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of a

known volume of batter to the weight of the same

volume of water, at a given temperature. Batter spe-

cific gravity is directly related to the volume, texture,

and grain of the finished cake. In general, the lower

the specific gravity, the higher the finished cake

volume, but optimal ranges for different types of

cake batters have been established.

Chemical and Physical Changes during

Baking

0026 Air bubbles, creamed in the fat, are released into the

aqueous phase as the fat is melted at approximately



C. Carbon dioxide is generated by the baking

powder and collects in these air bubbles. As the batter

heats, the batter begins to flow due to natural convec-

tion currents, as the batter temperature next to the

sides and bottom of the pan increases first and that in

the center heats last.

0027 The batter viscosity decreases initially upon heating

as the fat melts and before the starch gelatinizes.

Between 60 and 70



C, the starch granules absorb

several times their weight in water, increasing the

batter viscosity considerably. Major swelling of

the gelatinized starch granules insures that the cake

structure will not collapse. The amount of sugar and

some emulsifiers in the formula control the tempera-

ture at which the starch gelatinizes. The cake normally

sets into a solid system well below the boiling point of

water (100



C).

0028As the batter temperature reaches about 80



C, the

air bubbles enlarge rapidly, causing the cake to rise.

The liberation of carbon dioxide, the expansion of air

cells, and the formation of steam all contribute to the

leavening effect. Heat causes the gas to expand and

the pressure inside the gas cells to increase. Resistance

to expansion results from protein coagulation and

starch gelatinization. Timing is critical for the protein

film to enlarge with the expanding gases, prior to

protein denaturation and starch gelatinization,

which set the structure. Emulsifiers, whether occur-

ring naturally in eggs or added, improve the elasticity

of the protein film surrounding the gas bubbles,

enabling them to increase without rupturing.

0029Moisture evaporates from the cake surface during

baking, keeping it cool. However, as most of the water

is removed, the surface gets hot enough to brown.

Lower baking temperatures should be used for richer

(high sugar and fat content) cakes, as the sugars can

cause excessive browning of the crust before the

interior is set. The baking time for all cakes should

be kept as short as possible to avoid too much color

development and formation of a thick crust.

0030A summary of common cake faults and possible

ingredient, mixing, or baking-related causes is given

in Table 6.

Role of Additives

0031One of the main additives in cake production is added

to the flour itself. In the USA, cake flour is made by

tbl0006 Table 6 Troubleshooting guide for cakes

Common cake faults

Possible causes Low

volume

Toughness Lacking

resilience

Poor crust

appearance

Irregulargrain Peaked center Undesirable

color

Improper chemical leavening 

Low batter viscosity 

Excessive oven temperature     

Insufficient oven temperature 

Egg/milk protein level incorrect 

Incorrect sugar level or type  

Overmixed batter 

Undermixed batter 

CAKES/Chemistry of Baking 763

adding chlorine gas to soft wheat flour at a rate of

0.5–2.5 oz per 100 lb (0.3–1.5 g kg

1

) of flour. This

lowers the pH and improves overall baking perform-

ance by increasing the volume, and improving grain,

texture, and symmetry. The optimal pH range is

between 4.5 and 4.8. The mechanism of chlorine on

flour is not completely understood: various research-

ers have shown that it affects the gluten, starch, and/

or lipid components of wheat flour.

0032 Overchlorinated cake flour will cause the batter to

set too quickly around the sides of the pan before full

expansion has been reached. The center continues

to rise, and the result is a cake with a strong peak. If

the flour is underchlorinated, the structure sets too

slowly, allowing the leavening gases to escape, and

the center of the cake collapses upon cooling.

0033 Emulsifiers promote air incorporation in the form

of fine bubbles and disperse the shortening into small-

sized particles. Emulsifiers’ unique behavior is due to

their ability to bridge the inseparable oil and water

phases at the interface. When their concentration

exceeds the solubility limit, they form an interfacial

membrane whose hydrophilic portions extend into

the aqueous phase. The membrane surrounds the dis-

persed oil and prevents the emulsion from breaking.

0034 Hydrogenated shortenings typically contain 3%

emulsifiers, with glycerol mono- and distearate being

the most common, although many others, including

blends, are also used. (See Emulsifiers: Uses in Pro-

cessed Foods.)

0035 Antioxidants are sometimes added to cake mixes to

retard the development of oxidative rancidity during

storage. All fats are subject to oxidative and hydro-

lytic rancidity, which causes objectionable odors and

flavors, but antioxidants delay these reactions from

occurring within the products’ shelf-life. Four com-

pounds commonly used as antioxidants are butylated

hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, t-butyl

hydroquinone, and propyl gallate. Citric and phos-

phoric acids have a synergistic effect when combined

with the antioxidants. The levels are limited by law,

economics, and functionality, and vary with the

additive and product application, but generally fall

between 0.005 and 0.1% of the product weight. Nat-

ural antioxidants, e.g. tocopherals, offer a desirable

alternative to synthetic varieties, but have other

usage issues such as heat lability. (See Antioxidants:

Synthetic Antioxidants.)

0036 Color additives are used in many baked products,

including cakes and their icings. Added color can help

the product fulfill consumer perceptions and expect-

ations regarding quality, richness, and overall visual

appeal. There are two types of color additives – certi-

fied and uncertified. The certified colors are synthetic

and strictly regulated, whereas the uncertified usually

come from natural sources and usage level varies

greatly. The certified colors used in the USA include

FD&C blue no. 1, FD&C red no. 3, FD&C yellow

no. 5 and FD&C red no. 40. Uncertified color

additives include annatto extract, b-carotene, beet

powder, b-apo-8-carotenal, xanthins, caramel, car-

mine, carrot oil, cochineal extract, toasted partially

defatted cottonseed flour, fruit and vegetable juices or

concentrates, paprika and paprika oleoresin, ribofla-

vin, saffron, titanium dioxide, tumeric, and tumeric

oleoresin. (See Colorants (Colourants): Properties

and Determination of Natural Pigments; Properties

and Determinants of Synthetic Pigments.)

0037Many flavoring agents are used in cake batters,

icings, and/or fillings. Spices are processed from dif-

ferent parts of aromatic plants, including fruits, barks

or seeds. Some spices commonly used in cakes include

allspice, anise, caraway seed, cardamom, cinnamon,

cloves, coriander, ginger, mace, nutmeg, poppy seed,

saffron, and sesame seed. Some of these act as both

flavoring and coloring agents.

0038Alcohol extracts can also be used to enhance the

flavor of cakes. The sapid and odorous volatile com-

ponents are extracted from aromatic plants or parts

of the plant and solubilized in ethanol or propylene

glycol. For example, vanilla extract is a ubiquitous

flavoring in cakes, derived from the vanilla bean.

0039Chocolate and cocoa from the cacao tree bean are

also popular flavoring agents. However, defatted

cocoa powder also adds bulk to the cake, often

replacing up to 10% of the flour weight. Often in

chocolate cakes, the sugar level and leavening system

must be adjusted to compensate for the cocoa. (See

Cocoa: Production, Products, and Use.)

See also: Antioxidants: Synthetic Antioxidants; Cocoa:

Production, Products, and Use; Colorants (Colourants):

Properties and Determination of Natural Pigments;

Properties and Determinants of Synthetic Pigments;

Eggs: Dietary Importance; Emulsifiers: Uses in

Processed Foods; Flour: Roller Milling Operations;

Analysis of Wheat Flours; Dietary Importance; Leavening

Agents