Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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and tender edible leaves. Leafy salad vegetables are

nutritionally important sources of protein, fiber, min-

erals, and vitamins. Their prominence as an import-

ant crop group has been heightened over several

decades through awareness of consumers regarding

nutritional and other obvious values they offer to the

diet as fresh greens. As these crops have become

a daily table staple, their acreage has expanded to a

remarkable degree over the past few decades, making

them an important segment of the agricultural and

marketing industries, especially in the USA.

0002 Nearly all vegetables can be consumed raw, but few

of them are commonly referred to as salad crops, of

which only a few are considered as leafy salad vege-

tables based on the criterion that their leaves alone

are consumed. Leafy salad crops are defined as those

crops from which leaves and associated parts are

harvested for use as raw vegetables. Their succulent

leaves and petioles are susceptible to damage by pests,

poor production and handling systems, and environ-

mental extremes over which growers have little or no

control.

0003 There are four major leafy salad crops – celery

(Apium graveolens), chicory (Cichorium intybus),

endive (Cichorium endivia L.) and lettuce (Lactuca

sativa L.) – and other lesser vegetables used primarily

for salads, flavoring, or garnishing the foods. The

latter include Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var.

gemmifera), cabbage (B. oleracea var. capitata), Chi-

nese cabbage (B. pekinensis), chervil (Anthriscus cer-

efolium), dill (Anethum graveolens), garden cress

(Lepidium sativum), mustard (B. juncea), parsley

(Petroselinum crispum), spinach (Spinacia oleracea),

and watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum).

Most salad crops thrive best during cooler and moist

seasons, and do not tolerate hot weather conditions.

Global Distribution, Commercial

Importance, and Varieties

0004 Brussels sprouts (B. oleracea var. gemmifera) are

similar to cabbage when prepared as salad for table

purposes. This crop has been grown around Brussels

and Belgium for hundreds of years and is an import-

ant vegetable in Europe, particularly in England. Out

of Europe it is not important, although it is widely

grown in Australia and California.

0005 Improved Long Island, Catskill, Early Morn Dwarf

Improved, and Friither Zwerg Kvik are important

varieties belonging to the dwarf type. Bedfordshire,

Cambridge no. 1, 3, and 5, Irish Elegance, and Sher-

radian are some of the important cultivars grown in

England and Ireland. Early cultivars such as Breda

(Netherlands), Weibulls Rapid (Sweden), and Wil-

helmsburg (Germany) have light green sprouts.

Late hardy cultivars include Red Vein, Hild’s Idea,

DeRoshy Amager, and Polarstjernen.

0006Cabbage is one of the most important and oldest

recorded vegetables, cultivated throughout the world.

The word cabbage (B. oleracea var. capitata L.) is

probably derived from the French word cobbache

meaning head, and the name Brassica from the Celtic

name bresic for cabbage. Cabbage was mentioned in

the early literature and was probably in general use as

early as 2000 or 2500 bc. In 1987, the total area

under cabbage crop was 1 682 000 ha with a produc-

tion of 38 132 000 tonnes. Asia has the largest pro-

duction area (811 000 ha) followed by the former

Soviet Union (420 000 ha) and Europe (296 000 ha).

0007Cabbage and Chinese cabbage (B. pekinensis and

B. chinensis) are annual potherbs grown as salad

vegetables. In China they have been cultivated since

the fifth century and were introduced to the USA in

the late nineteenth century. In the USA, Chinese cab-

bage is grown throughout the year in California,

Florida, and Hawaii. The importance of Chinese cab-

bage is also increasing in European countries, notably

the UK, France, and Germany. The most popular

varieties are Chihili and Wong Bok, grown in the

USA. Two more or less distinct species are grown:

petsai (B. pekinensis) and pak choi (B. chinensis).

Shantung Cabbage, Chefoo Cabbage, Pekin Cabbage,

Chou De Chine and Celery Cabbage are the known

varieties of Chinese cabbage.

0008Celery (Apium graveolens) is an herb, widely culti-

vated for its edible swollen leaf petioles. Green and

white varieties are available. Celeriac is a variety of

celery (A. graveolens var. rapaceum) with an edible

tuberous base to the stems. Celery was first cultivated

as a medicinal crop as early as 400 bc in Egypt and in

the Roman Empire. The Greeks used it to make a

celery wine called selinites. Crowns made of celery

stems and leaves were awarded to winners of athletic

games at the Isthmus of Corinth.

0009Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), a member of the

family Compositae (Asteraceae), is an important per-

ennial salad vegetable. It is native to Europe and Asia,

and may have originated from the Mediterranean

region. Chicory is also known as French endive, wit-

loof, witloof chicory, and succory. The first mention

of chicory cultivation was in 1616 in Germany. The

blanched cluster of leaves (head) called witloof chic-

ory, which has a delicate flavor, is widely used in

France, Belgium, and The Netherlands. The dried,

roasted, and ground roots are also used as a coffee

substitute or in blends with coffee.

0010Radichetta and Rosso de Verona are the important

chicory cultivars in the USA and Italy, respectively.

Penninck, Christaens, Mueninck, and Van Espen are

Belgian cultivars, while Normato, Malina, Bubbal

SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types 5047

Blank, and Slusia Meilof are Dutch cultivars.

Flambor, Bergere, and Zoom are chicory hybrids.

Tardivo and Mitado are the best cultivars for forcing,

giving highest yield and best quality produce. Best

forcing varieties under hydroponic system in terms

of yield and quality are Tardivo, Mitado, Nunhems

825-76 and Nunhems 820-76, Zoom, Alvaro,

and Barola. For very early forcing, Daliva, Arnova,

Zoom, Mitiva, and Wivro are the outstanding

cultivars.

0011 Chervil is native to Europe and has finely divided

pinnate leaves. It was cultivated in England in 1597

and in America by 1806. The origin of salad chervil

(Anthriscus cerefolium L.) lies in the region of south-

eastern Europe and western Asia. Cress is also known

as pepper grass or garden cress, and is grown as

a salad crop all over the world. A native of Iran

and Europe, it spread from Persia to India,

Egypt, and Greece. It was mentioned by Xenophobe

in 400 bc, and has been cultivated in England since

1548. In the USA it is cultivated and also grows wild.

Four types of cress are cultivated: common, curled,

broad-leaved, and golden cultivars. Chervil may

also be used as a garnish, in soups or as a cooked

vegetable.

0012 Endive (Chichorium endivia L.), belonging to the

family Compositae (Asteraceae), is an annual or bi-

ennial popular salad vegetable in Europe. Its popular-

ity has also increased in the USA. It is believed to be a

native of Egypt or India. It is indigenous to eastern

Mediterranean areas and may have originated from a

cross between C. intybus and C. pumitum. The Egyp-

tians used it at a very early period. During the thir-

teenth century, it reached northern Europe. It was

noted in the USA in 1806. Endive is an important

market garden crop in Florida, USA. Its cultivation

began in England in 1686 and in France in 1826.

Endive is classified into two general groups: (1) the

curled or fringe-leafed cultivars, and (2) the broad-

leaved cultivars. The Green Curled Ruffic, Deep

Heart Fringed, Green Curled Pancalier, and White

Curled are curled or fringe-leafed types. Varieties

representing the Broad-Leaved class are broad-leaved

Batavian, Full-Heart, Batavian or Escarole and Flor-

ida Deep Heart.

0013 Kale (B. oleracea var. acephala) is a nonheading

type of cabbage and belongs to the family Cruciferae

(Brassicaceae). It is a hardy food and a fodder crop. It

can tolerate temperatures as low as 15



C as well as

high temperatures. There are various types of kale,

but curly-leafed types are grown for human consump-

tion. Cultivation of kale probably began seven mil-

lennia ago; the Greeks grew them as early as 600 bc.

Kale varieties have been classified as Marrow-Stem

Kale, Leafy Kale, Thousand-Head Kale, and Curly

Kale. The most popular varieties of kale in the USA

are Dwarf Blue Scotch and Dwarf Green Scotch.

0014Lettuce, an annual and a most popular cool-season

leafy salad vegetable of great commercial importance,

belongs to the tribe Cicoreae and family Compositae.

The cultivated lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is related to

wild lettuce (L. scariola), a common weed in the USA.

Heading lettuce is a relatively recent cultivated crop,

being first described as cabbage lettuce in 1543. It is

grown throughout temperate, tropical, and subtrop-

ical climates. Both cultivated and wild lettuce species

are native of Europe and Asia, and have been in

cultivation for the last 2500 years. Evidence from

tomb paintings indicates that it was cultivated before

4500 bc. In India, the Portuguese and the British

introduced it during the sixteenth century. The crop

spread throughout the Mediterranean region during

the Greek and Roman era and from there to the rest

of Europe. It was recorded as being cultivated in

the New World by 1494. Lettuce is known as green

gold in California, the most important vegetable-

producing state in the USA.

0015Lettuce production and consumption have in-

creased several-fold over the last two decades

throughout temperate countries. However, in tropical

and subtropical countries, its popularity is still con-

fined to urban populations. Lettuce ranks sixth in

acreage and third in value among 22 principal vege-

tables. World lettuce production is estimated at about

3 million tonnes and it is grown on more than

300 000 ha. Lettuce is grown in all continents, but

the greatest consumers and producers are the USA

(91 000 ha, of which 60 000 ha are in California) and

Europe (total European Community area 80 000 ha).

Lettuce is also grown in large areas of south-eastern

Australia, Japan, China, Israel, northern Mexico,

Chile, Argentina, Brazil, and Peru. The value of the

US crop is nearly $800 million and in the UK lettuce is

the single most valuable vegetable crop, with a value

of £78 million. It is widely used in all salad prepar-

ations, and has a somewhat bizarre use as a substitute

for tobacco.

0016Four types of lettuce – head-type (Lactuca sativa L.

var. capitata), leaf-type (L. sativa L. var. crispa), cos-

type (L. sativa L. var. longifolia), and asparagus

lettuce or stem-type (L. sativa L. var. asparagina) are

grown in the USA. The crisp head-type is the most

popular and is extensively grown in the USA. About

70% of US crisp head lettuce is produced commer-

cially in California, 16% in Arizona, and the rest in

several other states. The American type has recently

become increasingly popular in the UK and Spain.

Crisp head lettuce is often called Iceberg lettuce,

when marketed as a trimmed overwrapped head.

However, this is somewhat misleading since there is

5048 SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types

a crisp head cultivar called iceberg, which is unsuit-

able for iceberg production. Butter head and cos (Ro-

maine) are popular in northern and southern Europe.

Leaf lettuce is grown mainly in Mediterranean areas

and also in South America. Stem lettuce is cultivated

mainly in the orient.

0017 One hundred and fifty distinct varieties have been

reported, of which 20–25 are commercially import-

ant. They have been classified into three general

classes:

0018 Butter head varieties:

0019 (a) Bunching varieties

0020 (b) Cabbage heading varieties

0021 Crisp head varieties:

0022 (a) Bunching varieties

0023 (b) Cabbage heading varieties

0024 Cos-type varieties:

0025 (a) Lanceolate-leaved varieties

0026 (b) Lobed-leaved varieties

0027 (c) Spatulate-leaved varieties

The crisp head class includes most of the important

commercial varieties, of which New York 515 and

Imperial 44, 152, 456, 615, and 847 are the most

popular. Great Lakes and Penn Lakes are other im-

portant crisp head varieties: the former has several

strains. Big Boston, White Boston, May King, Sala-

mander, and Wayahead are the common varieties of

butter head type, but they are of relatively little

commercial importance. Black-Seeded Simpson,

Early-Curled Simpson, Grand Rapids, and Slow Bolt

are the main varieties of leaf or bunching lettuce.

Paris White (White Cos) and Dark Green are the

cos-type varieties.

0028 Cultivars include Sea Green, Empress Calsweet,

Green Ice, Cabrillo, Cal K-60, Calmaria, Chaparral,

Mesaverde, Morangold, Morgangourd, and Royal

Oak Leaf. In India Great Lakes (head-type) and Chi-

nese yellow (loose-leaf-type) are commonly grown

cultivars. Imperial 859 and Slow Bolt are also im-

proved cultivars of lettuce, and the Indian Agricul-

tural Research Institute, New Delhi, has released all

four cultivars.

0029 Mustard (B. juncea or B. alba) is a member of the

cabbage family. It is used both as a salad ingredient

and as a green vegetable. There are several species of

mustard used for spice, flavoring, oil seeds, green

fodder, manure, and greens or salad. In addition to

being grown for its seeds, white mustard may be

grown as a salad plant, cover crop, and green manure.

It is principally an oilseed crop, but is commonly

grown as a leafy vegetable in northern parts of

India, China, and tropical and subtropical regions.

All the Brassicas are native to central Asia and

the Himalayas, with secondary centers in India

and eastern China. The commercially important

white mustard (Sinapsis alba), brown mustard (B.

nigra), and Ethiopian mustard (B. corinata) are

grown all over the world for various uses. They

are particularly common in the USA, Canada, the

UK, and most countries of Europe, India, China,

and the South-east Asian countries. In the USA, mus-

tard for salads and greens is grown in Texas, Califor-

nia, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi.

There are two principal salad or greens cultivars,

namely Florida (broad leaf) and Southern Giant

(curled leaf), which are grown in the USA. Varieties

Ford Hook Fancy, Ostrich Plume, and Southern

Giant are the popular varieties of B. juncea grown

in the USA.

0030Parsley (Petroselinum crispum Mill.), a biennial or

short-lived perennial cool-season crop, is native to the

Mediterranean region and Europe. Parsley is popular

as a garnish for salads, sandwiches, and cooked

dishes; as flavoring for soups and pasta, and as a

salad ingredient – only in small amount owing to its

pungent flavor. The Hamburg type is used mainly in

soups and stews. The swollen root of turnip-rooted

parsley is eaten as a cooked vegetable. It was popular

in early times among the Greeks and Romans. It is

valued as an aid to digestion and in suppressing odors

of onion and wine. It has been in cultivation for over

2000 years. Parsley is produced commercially in

Texas, California, New Jersey, Florida, and New

York. Parsley was introduced into England from

Sardinia in 1548 and into America by 1806.

0031Five types of parsley varieties – plain-leafed, celery-

leafed or Neapolitan, curled, fern-leafed, and turnip-

root types – are available. The curled type is most

common but plain and turnip-root types are also

grown in the USA. The best-known varieties are

Moss, Extra Double Curled, Fern-Leafed, Curled

Dwarf, Ever Green, Extra Triple Curled, Plain, and

Dark Green Italian. Morgo was developed in Sweden,

and Hamburg is a turnip-rooted variety.

0032Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) belongs to the

family Chenopodiaceae. The name spinach is derived

from the Spanish word espinaca. Spinach is annual

for leaf production and biennial for seed production.

It is the most important potherb or green vegetable

grown throughout the world and is used raw in salads

or mixed with other salad vegetables. Its leaves

and tender shoots are consumed fresh or processed

and canned. Spinach is native to central Asia, most

probably Iran (Persia). Spinach cultivation developed

during the Greek and Roman civilizations about 2000

years ago. It was introduced and known in China as

early as the seventh century (647 ad). Arabs intro-

duced spinach into North Africa and therefrom

the Moors introduced it into Spain in the eleventh

SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types 5049

century and into America in 1806. The crop was

known in Germany in the thirteenth century and

elsewhere in Europe in 1552. Spinach is of two

types: prickly-seeded and smooth-seeded.

0033 The major commercial areas for growing spinach

are California, mostly in Ventura country; the Winter

Garden region of the lower Rio Grande Valley

of Texas; Maryland, New Jersey, and Colorado. Cali-

fornia contributes one-third of the total spinach

produced for industrial processing. One hundred

and twenty-one spinach varieties obtained from

American and European sources were tested and it

was concluded that only five distinct varieties exist.

Varieties were classified into Savoy leaf and flat leaf

types, instead of the original four groups – Norfolk

or Bloomsdale, round-leafed, thick-leafed, and

prickly-leafed. Juliana, Virginia Savoy, Old Domin-

ion, Hollandia, Viroflag, Amsterdam Giant, King of

Denmark, and Nobel are important varieties of these

two classes. The varieties Viro flag, Fruremona, and

Wiremona are good for processing. Beltsville Arling-

ton (Virginia), Beltsville (Maryland), Winter Haven

(Texas), and Davis (California) are long-standing

varieties in different countries; many hybrids are

also available.

0034 Watercress, a unique perennial salad vegetable

having worldwide distribution, commonly grows in

flowing water as a wild or cultivated crop. It is be-

lieved to be a native of the eastern Mediterranean and

Europe. It grows wild in streams in the cool regions of

the world, but is also found growing wild above

1500 m in the Himalayas of Nepal and hilly areas of

the USA. Most production is in Virginia, Maryland,

Pennsylvania, and California. It was used as a medi-

cinal plant in ad 77 as it has antiscorbutic properties.

In Europe, watercress formed one of the tributes to

the high Kings of Erin (Ireland) during the Dark Ages.

The first large-scale cultivation of watercress is sug-

gested to have been in southern Germany, near Erfurt,

around 1750. It was grown in England for the first

time in 1808 and in France in 1811 where large-scale

cultivation was started to supply the markets of

London and Paris.

0035 Watercress is cropped for its side stems and leaves.

It has a hot mustard/radish-like flavor and pungent

taste, and is generally used in mixed salads, as a

garnish, in sandwiches and soups. Seedlings with the

hypocotyl and green cotyledons are cut and used in

the UK for salads and sandwiches. Its elongated shoot

with vigorous basal branching produces a sward

crop. Repeated cutting leads to increased branching

and as many as 10 crops a year may be harvested. For

commercial outdoor cultivation it is planted in beds

covered with slowly flowing clean water. There are

two main cultivars: Green Cress, which is diploid,

and fertile, and Brown Cress or Winter Cress, which

is triploid and sterile. Cress (Lepidium sativum L. f.

Cruciferae) is a much-branched annual with linear

leaves. The Moss Curled (curled) variety is branching,

dark green, and with a mild, but distinct flavor.

Features of the Edible Parts

0036In Brussels sprouts, instead of a single head at the top

of the stem, miniature heads are born in the axils of

leaves distributed all along a tall stem, which is

crowned with a cluster of loose leaves. The dwarf

varieties of Brussels sprouts have short stems, mostly

less than 50 cm long. In dwarf cultivars sprouts are of

medium size and the distance between sprouts is

small. Tall late hardy cultivars are preferred for a

long growing season. Early cultivars have light green

sprouts. The small solid heads 5–7 cm in diameter are

tender and delicious.

0037Michihili, the most common improved variety of

Chinese cabbage, is uniform in size and heading. The

heads are usually 46 cm long and 10 cm thick, and

cylindrical in shape with a tapered tip. The outer

foliage is dark green, the inner leaves are blanched,

and the midrib is white and broad. The old Chinese

cultivar, Won Bok, has light green leaves. The petsai,

which resembles the cos lettuce, produces a much

larger, elongated and compact head; the leaves are

slightly wrinkled, green, thin, and much veined. The

midrib is broad and light in color. Another variety,

pakchoi, resembles Swiss chard in its growth habit.

The leaves are long, dark green, and oblong or oval,

and do not form a solid head.

0038In the case of Radichetta chicory, the leaves are

dark green, narrow, and notched, and the Italian

cultivar is a red, nonforcing type.

0039Endive is a plant with numerous radical leaves,

which are smooth, lobed, more or less deeply cut

and spreading into a rosette; the stem is hollow,

from 50 cm to over 1 m high, ribbed and branching.

Endive grows as a loose head of leaves, which are

usually strongly ruffled and serrated. The outermost

leaves are green and bitter in taste, but the inner leaves

are light green to whitish in color.

0040Kale is closely related to the wild cabbage, and

most of its forms bear a rosette of leaves at the top

of the stem. Its tender young leaves are used for salad.

It also produces edible inflorescence like cauliflower

and broccoli.

0041Lettuce forms a rosette of large, longish leaves,

which are somewhat spoon-shaped and more or

less undulated/toothed at the edges. From the center

of the rosette springs a nearly cylindrical stem,

which narrows very rapidly and branches at about

one-third of its height. It is furnished with clasping

5050 SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types

leaves, which encircle the stem and become narrower

as they approach the top. There are six morphological

types of lettuce: crisp head, butter head, cos, leaf,

stem, and Latin, depending on changes in leaf shape

and development of the heading character.

0042 Crisp head-type lettuces have unbranched stems,

which generally remain less than 30 cm long, owing

to the growth being arrested at an early stage. As the

growing point continues to form leaf primordia, a

rosette of sessile leaves arises. The first leaf unfolds

normally, and can reach a length of over 30 cm. After

some time, other leaves are produced which unfold

only partially and form a layer, embracing the lat-

erally formed leaves that do not expand. This con-

tinuous segregation and growth of young leaves

develops a head. Crisp head cultivars are usually

large, heavy, brittle-textured and tightly folded with

green outer and white or yellowish inner leaves.

0043 Butter head comprises heads of very soft, buttery,

textured crumpled leaves, which have less prominent

veins and midribs than in crisp head types. The

variety Imperial has relatively soft textured light to

medium green leaves with serrated or wavy edges.

The leaves of Great Lakes are brittle with ruffled

margins, and are bright green to yellow with promin-

ent ribs. Leaves of Empire are light green, deeply

serrated and crisp, while the heads are often slightly

elongated or conical. Butter head varieties are some-

times referred to as cabbage lettuce. Their broad

oily, soft-textured, crumpled leaves form relatively

small, loose heads. There are a number of other

cultivars, which vary in size, color (including red),

and appearance.

0044 Leaf lettuce primarily produces a rosette of leaves

and has no heading tendency. Like butter head

lettuce, it forms a loose head, but the leaves are

elongated, resembling those of cos lettuce.

0045 Cos (Romaine) lettuce has elongated heads of long

leaves with heavy midribs. The outer leaves are coarse

and tough in appearance and dark green, but the

inner leaves are fine-textured and light green. The

eating quality of cos lettuce is good and it is very

popular in southern Europe and the Mediterranean

region.

0046 Stem lettuce is sold as Celtuce in the USA; the stems

are peeled and used as salad or cooked vegetable.

0047 Latin lettuce leaves are somewhat elongated, but

more leathery than Romaine. It is very different in

appearance from other types of lettuce, having a

thickened, elongated stem, which is peeled and used

as salad or cooked vegetable.

0048 Mustard leaves are very strongly flavored and pun-

gent. The inner younger leaves are milder and are best

suited for salad. The basal rosette leaves of mustard

vary in form, while the stem leaves are mostly entire.

Leaves are large, broadening towards the apex, and

have smooth or curled margins. Florida Broad Leaf is

a vigorous, large, and erect plant with large, thick,

broad, oval leaves with toothed margins. Southern

Giant (curled leaf) is large and upright with large,

wide leaves and curly leaf margins.

0049Parsley is a rosette of divided leaves on a short

stem. The curled-leaf-type is most common and at-

tractive. Its three subtypes – double-curled (moss

curled), evergreen, and triple-curled – are distin-

guished by the degree of leaf curling, coarseness of

the leaf, and plant growth habit. Moss curled

(double-curled) has a stem about 30 cm tall with

vigorous, compact and very dark green leaves,

which are finely cut, deeply curled, and frost-resist-

ant. Leaves of evergreen type are coarsely cut, while

extra triple-curled leaves are finely cut and very

closely curled. The triple-curled variety has slightly

shorter leaves, which are closely curled. The leaves

of the variety Paramount are tall, very uniform,

triple-curled, and a very dark green color. The

plain leaf parsley (Dark Green Italian) has deeply

cut leaves but no curling or fringing. Plain-leaved

types include plain (singles) and have flat leaves.

The leaves of the Dark Green Italian cultivar are

heavy and glossy green.

0050Spinach, in general, produces rosettes of fleshy

leaves, which may be crinkled (Savoy) or smooth in

the vegetative phase. The leaves are ovate, rounded or

triangular, succulent, and borne on a short stem. In

the second stage of growth, the stem elongates, pro-

ducing a seed stalk with narrow, pointed leaves. The

shape, size, and color may differ and be characteristic

of a varietal group. Varieties used for processing have

large, smooth, dark, or medium green leaves with a

semierect or spreading habit.

0051The watercress plant has three parts: first is

an aerial stem portion with an apex, and leaves

with no roots projecting above the water; second is

a stem portion beneath the flowing water, which

has foliage and a system of adventitious roots that

arise from the leaf axils and remain free in water;

and third is the normal roots. Watercress leaves

are pinnately compound with three to 11 leaflets,

rounded or oblong, and slightly fleshy with smooth

margins.

Chemical and Nutritional Composition

0052Brassica vegetables have isothiocyanates, thiocya-

nates, and nitrites as major sources of their character-

istic flavor, i.e., pungent aroma and bitter taste.

Brussels sprouts are rich in vitamin A and ascorbic

acid and contain appreciable amounts of riboflavin,

niacin, calcium, and iron. Kale, being a rich source of

SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types 5051

vitamin C, carotenoids, and calcium, ranks high

among the greens in nutritive value.

0053 Cabbage is rich in vitamin C and high in minerals

and proteins. Chinese cabbage provides 25 mg

vitamin C, 240 IU equivalents of vitamin A, and

moderate amounts of calcium, iron, phosphorus,

and potassium per 100 g of raw product. The cold-

hardy varieties possess higher soluble sugar content.

The sugar to dietary fiber ratio and soluble protein

content are related to flavor quality.

0054 The fringed-leaf endive is quite an ornamental

potherb and is more popular as a salad vegetable

than the broad-leaf type which is used mainly

unblanched in stews and soups. Curly endive provides

81 mg calcium, 3300 IU equivalents of vitamin A and

10 mg vitamin C as well as moderate amounts of

phosphorus, potassium, and iron per 100 g edible

part. Escarole has 14 000 IU equivalents of vitamin

A and vitamin C 100 mg 100 g

1

edible part. All

endives contain moderate amounts of minerals.

Chicory is rich in vitamins containing 1400 IU

equivalents of vitamin A and vitamin C 100 mg

100 g

1

edible part.

0055 Lettuce, rated as fourth, behind tomato, citrus and

potato on overall consumption basis, ranks 26th on

a nutritional scale. Butter head lettuce, producing a

large number of green leaves, is more nutritious than

the crisp head type. Cos and leaf lettuces are still more

nutritious, mainly because of their high carotenoids

(1900 IU vitamin A equivalents) and vitamin C

(18 mg) content per 100 g fresh weight. Crisp head

lettuce supplies 6 mg ascorbic acid, 330 IU equiva-

lents of vitamin A and calcium 20 mg 100 g

1

fresh

weight. However, butter head lettuce contributes

8 mg ascorbic acid, 970 IU equivalents of vitamin A

and calcium 35 mg 100 g

1

fresh weight. Other nutri-

ents like phosphorus, iron, sodium, and potassium,

are present in varying amounts in the different lettuce

types. Although lettuce has a very high water content

(94–95%), it can still prove a useful source of min-

erals. Leaf texture, color, crispness, taste, flavor, and

resistance to early bolting are considered the quality

characters.

0056 The young inner leaves of mustard that are tender

and mild in taste are consumed as salad. Mustard

greens are highly nutritious. A 100-g serving of

cooked mustard contains 48 mg vitamin C, 5800 IU

equivalents of vitamin A, 138 mg calcium and moder-

ate amounts of other elements.

0057 Healthy parsley leaves with their familiar agreeable

flavor are an excellent source of carotenoids, vitamin

C, and iodine, a good source of potassium, and a

moderate source of iron, sodium, and phosphorus.

However, its contribution to the diet is negligible.

Parsley per 100 g edible part contains 8500 IU

equivalents of vitamin A, 172 mg vitamin C, and

203 mg calcium. (See Fatty Acids: Trans-fatty Acids:

Health Effects.)

0058Spinach is the best vegetable source of provitamin

A, providing 8100 IU equivalents per 100 g edible

part, and it also contains 51 mg vitamin C and

93 mg calcium. Spinach is a good source of iron

(3.1 mg), phosphorus (51 mg), and potassium

(470 mg). However, the calcium is said to be unavail-

able due to the presence of oxalic acid, forming cal-

cium oxalate. It may also contain appreciable

amounts of nitrate and nitrite, which are injurious

to human health. (See Minerals – Dietary Importance;

Nitrates and Nitrites.)

0059Raw watercress leaves and stews supply 79 mg

ascorbic acid, 4900 IU equivalents of vitamin A, cal-

cium 151 mg per 100 g edible part and moderate to

large amounts of other elements.

Postharvest Handling and Storage

0060Baskets are used to pick and carry Brussels sprouts

to the packing houses. The individual boxes are

overwrapped with a transparent film. Film packaging

is useful in preventing moisture loss because the tran-

spiration rate of Brussels sprouts is relatively high.

The 0



C temperature coupled with 95–98% relative

humidity are optimum storage conditions for Brussels

sprouts to keep them in marketable condition for

about 3–5 weeks. The sprouts can be stored for a

longer period at 2



C temperature. A controlled

atmosphere, having 2.5–5.0% O

and 5–7.5% CO

maintains the quality of Brussels sprouts held at 5 or



C but not at 0



C. Oxygen levels below 1% can

cause internal discoloration.

0061Cabbage heads are usually harvested with a knife

or sickle, retaining few leaves below the head intact to

provide a kind of protection. For prolonged storage

sufficient care is taken to prevent injuries due to

bruising. The healthy heads are packed in perforated

polyethylene bags and stored at low temperature

immediately after harvest. Refrigeration at 1.6



Cor

lower and low relative humidity is required to check

the storage disorders. The lower the temperature, the

longer will be the storage life, but severe freezing

damages the quality. Solid heads are comparatively

more prone to freezing injury than merely firm heads.

A temperature of 0



C with 98% relative humidity is

advocated for storage up to 6 months.

0062All cole crops should be stored free from ethylene

to avoid premature senescence and tissue injury. Pre-

vention of excessive moisture loss is essential during

the course of storage. The major advantages of con-

trolled-atmosphere storage include slight reductions

in weight loss and retardation of general senescence,

5052 SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types

such as yellowing, toughening, and loss of the flavor

of cabbage. White cabbage stores well in 5% O

plus

2.5–5% CO

. However, if O

is maintained near zero

or CO

at 15% or higher for 1 month or longer, there

is discoloration of internal leaves, even though the

external leaves of cabbage may remain normal.

Some varieties which are stored for off-season

marketing can be maintained in an acceptable condi-

tion for 2–3 months, and up to 6 months with the use

of modified-atmosphere storage (1% O

and 5%

at 0–1



C and 98–100% relative humidity).

(See Packaging: Packaging of Solids; Storage Stabil-

ity: Parameters Affecting Storage Stability.)

0063 Chinese cabbage is harvested by hand at leaf base;

the outer diseased or damaged leaves are trimmed off

and packed in flat baskets, boxes, and crates of vari-

ous sizes. The head should be packed loosely and

preferably upright in crates. The produce can be

stored for several weeks at 0



C temperature and

95% relative humidity. However, at this temperature

with 98% relative humidity, the Chinese cabbage can

be kept in marketable condition for about 4–6

months. Proper spacing should be maintained in be-

tween containers for air circulation in storage. A low

concentration of oxygen has been reported to be

beneficial in prolonging the storage life of Chinese

cabbage.

0064 The compact, brightly colored and marketable size

heads of chicory are harvested by cutting the plants

from the base, and their damaged or diseased leaves

are trimmed. Such heads, after washing and vacuum

cooling or hydrocooling to 0



C temperature, are

packed in layers in wire-bound crates or cartons or

baskets for transit. The smaller package is much

desirable. The heads are stored for 2–3 weeks at



C temperature and 90–95% relative humidity.

Chicory can be stored for a longer period with

crushed ice in and around the package.

0065 Endive and escarole are not adapted to long storage

and even at 0



C temperature they cannot be kept

satisfactorily for more than 2–3 weeks. Vacuum

cooling or hydrocooling can be helpful in retaining

their fresh appearance. The relative humidity in

rooms, where endive or escarole is kept, should be

maintained above 95% to avoid wilting. They can

be kept somewhat longer if stored with crushed ice

in or around the packages.

0066 Lettuce is harvested as soon as its plants reach an

acceptable size and firmness; harvesting should be

completed before the leaves become tough in texture

and bitter in taste, and prior to the emergence of seed

stalk. The lettuce grown for market is allowed to

grow to its full size and develop a solid head while,

for home consumption it is often harvested before the

head is well developed. The heads are hand-cut just

below the lowest leaf; loose and damaged leaves are

removed, and the produce is washed prior to pack-

aging.

0067Generally three types of market preparation –

naked pack, source-wrapped, and bulk pack – are

adopted:

0068Naked pack: the heads are cut, trimmed, and

packed in two tiers (12 heads each) in cardboard

boxes.

0069Source-wrapped: after being cut and trimmed, the

heads are wrapped, heat-sealed, and placed 24 per

carton.

0070Bulk pack: cut heads, collected in bulk containers,

are transported to a central packing house where

they are cored, shredded, washed, and cooled

immediately after harvest. Cooling is predomin-

antly done by a vacuum method, particularly for

head lettuce shipped to distant markets. To aid

vacuum cooling, clean water is sprinkled on let-

tuce heads prior to carton closure if they are dry

and warmer than 25



C. Refrigerated trucks are

used for the shipment of lettuce.

For long storage lettuce should be packed in perfor-

ated plastic films, used either as individual head

wraps, or in carton or crates with liners to maintain

a high humidity around the lettuce. To save on space

and weight, trim two ‘wrapper’ leaves before

packing, rather than keeping all five to six leaves, as

extra wrapper leaves are not required to maintain

quality. When lettuce reaches the market, wrapper

leaves are removed and discarded to improve the

appearance. Removal of wrapper leaves at harvest

and wrapping the heads with plastic film reduces the

amount of injury sustained by lettuce during packing.

0071Polyethylene-lined (0.04 mm thick) packaging

checks lettuce leaf rot by 30–40% compared with

open polyethylene bags. Mechanical injury is the

major cause of quality loss and waste in unwrapped

lettuce. Packaging of Romaine lettuce in unsealed

polyethylene-lined packaging, in spite of high relative

humidity, markedly decreases the rate of decay during

storage. This beneficial effect of packaging is due to

the high CO

and low O

levels in the package as a

result of respiration. Lettuce should be precooled to

1



C just after harvest and stored at 0



C tempera-

ture and 98–100% relative humidity. The rate of

general deterioration at 15



C is observed to be

about 2.5 times higher than that at 0



0072Lettuce, being highly perishable, deteriorates

quickly. The respiration rate increases rapidly and

storage life decreases concomitantly as storage tem-

perature increases from 0 to 25



C. Leaf lettuce re-

spires at about twice the rate of head lettuce. Lettuce

can be stored for 3–4 weeks at about 0



C, which is

SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types 5053

twice a long as at 3–4



C, if it is brought in good

condition at the storage facility. Lettuce is easily dam-

aged by freezing, therefore, storage room temperature

must be kept above the highest freezing point

(0.2



C) of lettuce.

0073 A limited use of controlled-atmosphere storage

with about 1.5% CO

and 3–5% O

has been recom-

mended for storing lettuce in good condition. This

atmosphere prevents russet spotting and butt discol-

oration. High CO

(above 2.5%) and low O

(below

1%) levels in storage atmosphere are injurious to

lettuce. Thus the problems of russet spotting, bacter-

ial soft rot, and carbon dioxide injury causing serious

losses can be checked. Kinetin application delays

chlorophyl loss and slows down the increase in

abscissic acid content. Two days prior to harvest a

combined application of GA

10 ppm and the cyto-

kinin isopentenyl-adenine 0.1 ppm delays lettuce

senescence most effectively.

0074 Small bundles of mustard greens are made after

discarding the old and diseased leaves. It is handled

like other greens at 0



C temperature and commonly

shipped with inpackage and top ice to maintain fresh-

ness. Vitamin content and quality are retained so long

as wilting is prevented. Due to high rates of respir-

ation, kale is prone to rapid desiccation, therefore

provision of rapid cooling, low temperature, and

high-humidity storage conditions is important until

the commodity is consumed.

0075 Harvesting of parsley, cutting outer and larger

leaves only, extends over a long period of time. The

loosely packed or bunched leaves are washed thor-

oughly before packing in crates or bushel baskets.

Crushed ice is usually placed in the package, and

shipment to distant markets is made under refriger-

ation. Much of the crop goes into the institutional

trade (restaurants and hotels) and for dehydration. At



C temperature and high humidity parsley can be

stored up to 2 months.

0076 Harvesting of spinach usually begins when the

plants have attained five to six leaves and continues

until before the seed stalks emerge. The plants are

cut just close to the soil surface for market, while

for processing purposes about 5 cm above the soil

surface allows regrowth. Harvesting should be done

only during the cooler parts of the day to minimize

wilting. The crop should not be cut immediately after

rain or heavy dew since the leaves, being at their

full turgor, are injured easily. Yellow and diseased

leaves are removed, and the produce is handled gently

to prevent bruising. As washing in tanks usually

results in injury to the leaves, spraying with water

on a moving belt is desirable. Round bushel

baskets, hampers, and crates are used to pack

spinach, and crushed ice is generally placed in the

containers when refrigerated trucks are used for

long shipments.

0077Wilting of spinach on account of rapid air move-

ment and low humidity makes it less attractive and

causes loss of ascorbic acid content; however, this is

of much less significance than unfavorable tempera-

tures. From packaging till its final retail sale continu-

ous refrigeration near 0



C is generally recommended.

Spinach can be hydrocooled or vacuum-cooled

equally well. In case of hydrocooling, to remove

excess water, it should be centrifuged for about

3 min. Chlorinated water (100 p.p.m.), if used for

washing or cooling, avoids bacterial build-up on the

produce. Spinach remains usable up to 24 days at

1.6



C, 7 days at 10



C, or 2–2.5 days at 18



C. In

spinach stored at 20



C for 6 days the chlorophyl and

ascorbic acid contents decrease greatly and yellowing

increases. CO

-enriched atmosphere (10% CO

)

retards yellowing of spinach and keeps the product

in good quality for about 3 weeks at 5



C. Thus,

controlled-atmosphere storage extends the shelf-life

of spinach by about 1 week at 5



0078The top 15 cm watercress shoots are harvested.

Watercress is a highly perishable crop and needs

prompt handling after harvesting. Improper handling

of watercress will result in loss of its color and the

leaves become slimy. It should be precooled by either

hydrocooling or vacuum cooling. It is bunched and

usually packed in alternate layers with flake ice

and kept cool during shipment by spraying with

cold water and/or ice. Watercress packed in waxed

cartons with top ice holds up well for 2–3 weeks at



C with high (95–100%) relative humidity. A simi-

lar storage life is possible using permeable polyethyl-

ene crate liners and package icing to minimize

wilting. Naked bunches of watercress are highly per-

ishable, even at 0



C, and may be kept for 3–4 days.

The use of polyethylene film liners may be justified to

prevent moisture loss under some circumstances.

See also: Brassicas; Vegetables of Temperate

Climates: Cabbage and Related Vegetables; Oriental

Brassicas

Further Reading

Jones HA and Rosa JT (1928) Truck Crop Plants. New

York: McGraw-Hill.

Kalloo G and Bergh BO (1993) Genetic Improvement of

Vegetable Crops. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Maynard DN and Hochmuth GJ (1997) Knott’s Handbook

for Vegetable Growers. New York: John Wiley.

Peirce LC (1987) Vegetables: Characteristics, Production

and Marketing, pp. 163–268. New York: John Wiley.

Ryder EJ (1979) Leafy Salad Vegetables. Westport: AVI.

5054 SALAD CROPS/Leaf-types

Ryder EJ (1981) ‘Sea-Green’ lettuce. Horticultural Science

16(4): 571.

Ryder EJ and Whitaker TW (1980) The lettuce industry

in California. A quarter century of change, 1954–79.

Horticultural Reviews 2: 164–207.

Salunkhe DK and Desai BB (1984) Post Harvest Biotech-

nology of Vegetables, vol. II. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (1998) Handbook of Vegetable

Science and Technology: Production, Composition,

Storage and Processing. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Thompson RC (1951) Lettuce varieties and culture. USDA

Farmers Bulletin no. 1953, p. 42.

Thompson HC and Kelly WC (1957) Vegetable Crops, 5th

edn. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Tigchelaar EC (ed.) (1980) New vegetable varieties list

XXI. The Garden Research Committee, American Seed

Trade Association. Horticultural Science 15(5): 565.

Watt BK and Merrill AL (1963) Composition of Food.

USDA Agricultural Handbook No. 8. Washington, DC:

US Department of Agriculture.

Wood R (1979) Salad Crops. London: Marshall Cavendish.

Yamaguchi M (1983) World Vegetables: Principles, Pro-

duction and Nutritive Values. Westport: AVI.

Other Types of Salad Crops

K Gupta and M K Rana, CCS Haryana Agricultural

University, Hisar, Haryana, India

Introduction

0001 Of all the leaf-stem types of salad crops, celery (Apium

graveolens) is the most important. The other crops of

this group are: American wintergreen (Gaultheria

procumbens L.), asparagus (Asparagus officinalis),

baby corn (Zea mays var. crassa), broccoli (Brassica

oleracea var. italica), dandelion (Taraxacium offici-

nale Wig.), florence fennel (Foeniculum officinale

D.C.), globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.), kohl-

rabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes), oca (Oxalis

tuberosa Molina), and parsnip (Pastinaca sativa L.).

These crops are consumed in different forms,

especially in temperate countries.

Global Distribution, Commercial

Importance, and Varieties

0002 American wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens L.)

belongs to the family, Ericaceae, and Gaultheria was

named after Dr. Gaultheria, a physician from Quebec

in about 1750. It is commonly consumed as salad

crop for its tender leaves and stem in America and

Western countries, as well as Asia to Australia.

0003Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) is native to

Europe and Asia, and it is the young shoots that

are the edible parts. There are green and purple

varieties of asparagus. Forcing the plants with the

exclusion of light produces white spears, which are

very popular in Europe. The green variety of aspara-

gus is the one commonly canned and is most popu-

lar in the UK.

0004Baby corn (Zea mays var. rugosa or sacchorata), a

form of maize, is an ancient crop, as revealed from

cob remnants, dating back to about 5000 bc, found at

the Tehuacan cave excavations in Mexico. Domesti-

cation is estimated to have begun about that time.

Baby corn is quite nutritious and is the most popular

salad vegetable in United States and Western coun-

tries, where its tender ears, canned in 2% citric acid,

are imported from developing countries, mainly from

Thailand. It is an ingredient of vegetable biryani,

mixed vegetables, Chinese food preparations, etc.

Soup, crispy vegetable salad, and pickles made from

baby corn are other value-added delicacies in big

hotels and airlines. In addition to significant nutri-

tion, baby corn imparts diversity to meals because

of its texture and flavor. The recognized cultivars of

baby corn in India are Prakash, Golden Baby, and

Composite Kesari.

0005Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), a rapidly

developing floral vegetable, is usually harvested when

the curd is compact and immature. The name broccoli

refers to the young shoots that develop in some

species of genus Brassica (‘brocco’ is an Italian word

for ‘shoot’). In the United States, it is also known as

Italian broccoli, suggesting its Italian origin. Its ped-

uncle, basically a stem, is consumed raw as salad. The

broccoli, believed to be the ancestor of cauliflower, is

a vegetable of the highest quality and of commercial

importance in USA as it is the favorite vegetable of

Americans. Broccoli was one of the top vegetables

exported from the USA in 1995. Broccoli and aspara-

gus accounted for about 90% of the $102.6 million of

exported vegetables from the USA to Japan in 1994.

A large part of the US production goes to the freezing

industry. The top broccoli-producing states in 1992

were California, Arizona, and Texas.

0006Broccoli is gradually becoming a popular vegetable

in other parts of the world. Italian Green Sprouting

and Calabrese are the most popular varieties of broc-

coli. The early and medium-maturing strains of

Italian Green Sprouting, Midway, Green Mountain,

and Grand Central, are dark bluish green in color

and produce large compact heads and many lateral

shoots after the central head is cut. The cultivar De

Cicco, the main winter broccoli grown in Texas, is

light green in color and produces abundant lateral

shoots.

SALAD CROPS/Other Types of Salad Crops 5055

0007 Celery (Apium graveolens L.) belongs to the family

Apiaceae (Umbelliferae), and comprises three distinct

cultivated varieties that are grown in different parts of

the world for different economic purposes. These

varieties are classified below, according to the botan-

ical parts of the plant consumed.

0008 Apium graveolens var. dulce, common name

‘celery:’ the plants of celery develop succulent,

solid petioles that are used mostly raw as salad.

0009 Apium graveolens var. rapaceum, common name

‘celeriac’ or ‘root celery.’ It is characterized by the

development of enlarged hypocotyl or root tissue.

It is consumed mostly cooked in stews and soups

or grated on salad.

0010 Apium graveolens var. secalinum, common name

‘smallage’ or ‘leaf celery:’ the plants have leafy,

slender, and often hollow petioles. Its leaves are

used as a condiment garnish and for medicinal

purposes.

0011 The genus Apium is spread world-wide, particu-

larly in the Mediterranean basin, Australia, New Zea-

land, South Africa, and South America. Among 14

species, Apium graveolens is the only cultivated type.

The Mediterranean basin is considered to be the

center of its origin. Argentina and Chile are the coun-

tries richest in Apium species. Celery is important in

Europe and America. Its habitat extends from

Sweden southwards to Algeria, Egypt, and Ethiopia

and in Asia from the Caucasus (Bluchistan) to the

mountains of India. Wild celery can be found in

damp or marshy areas of different European coun-

tries, Egypt, and parts of Asia. It was first used as a

medicinal plant and as a food in ad 1500. Homer’s

‘Odyssey’ mentions salinon (celery) grown in 850 bc,

but this early form, later called ‘smallage,’ was a leafy

plant, quite pungent and bitter, and used exclusively

for medicines.

0012 Celery was demonstrated as a true vegetable in

Italy in the sixteenth century. At that time, the first

reports of the three horticultural varieties, ‘celery,’

‘celeriac,’ and ‘smallage,’ appeared. Selection for

solid and succulent petioles resulted in ‘celery’ types,

whereas, selection for enlarged hypocotyls gave rise

to ‘celeriac’ types.

0013 Fresh use of celery began in the eighteenth century,

and its use as a vegetable in the USA was recorded in

1806. It is used in mixed salads or as an appetizer, in

which case, it is often stuffed with cream cheese or

peanut butter. In the USA, a large part of the celery

crop is consumed in the raw state, but considerable

quantities are used in vegetable juices, soups, and

stews and as cooked vegetables.

0014 In the eighteenth century, two varieties of solid-stem

Italian celery available in France were ‘Solid Celery’

and ‘Striped Rose.’ In 1875, Chemin selected a line

known as ‘Solid Golden White Celery,’ which became

the variety ‘Paris Golden Yellow Self-Blanching.’ In

1884, Pascal selected a green celery line from this

variety, which was known in the seed trade as ‘Pascal

Celery.’ In 1887, both the varieties were introduced

to North America under the names of ‘White Plume’

for the self-blanching type and ‘Giant Pascal’ for the

green type.

0015The word ‘dandelion’ comes from the French ‘Dent

de Lion’ meaning ‘lion’s tooth’ and reflects the jagged

shape of the leaf. Previously, it was considered a

noxious weed, but now, cultivated dandelion has

been developed from the wild species (Taraxacum

officinale), a member of the Compositae family. It is

a great favorite in Europe, and to a lesser extent, in

the USA. Its leaves are used raw in salads or cooked as

greens. The flowers can be fermented to produce

wine. The roots, similar to those of chicory, may be

used as a coffee substitute.

0016Fennel is produced commercially in the USA, but

most of its seed is imported from India, Argentina,

and Bulgaria. Volatile oil (anethole constituent) of

fennel seeds is an adaptable flavoring agent used in

the manufacture of pickles, perfumes, soaps, liquors,

cough drops, and chicory candy.

0017Florence fennel (Foeniculum officinale) is also a

leaf-stem type salad crop. It is a native of southern

Europe and resembles wild fennel. The type ‘Caro-

sella’ (Foeniculum piperitum, D.C.), extensively used

in Naples and scarcely known anywhere else, is a

species very closely related to F. officinale. The plant

is used while running to bloom. The fresh and tender

stems, available only from the end of March until

June, are served raw and still enclosed in the

expanded leaf stalks; Italian fennel (F. dulce), a

short-lived perennial also called finnochio, is

cultivated as an annual. The base of its leaves be-

comes enlarged and bulb-like and, when blanched,

has the texture of celery being primarily used for

flavoring.

0018Globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.), belonging

to family Asteraceae (Compositae) in tribe Cynarae,

is named so as to distinguish it from the Jerusalem

artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). It is an important

vegetable in Mediterranean countries, where 90% of

the world artichoke crop is produced. Italy, Spain,

France, and Argentina are the main producers.

Cyanara cardunculus L. var. sylvestris Lam (the wild

cardoon) is widely spread in the western Mediterra-

nean basin (Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and

Sicily). C. sibthorpiana Boiss and Heldr is located in

the central part (the Peloponnese, Aegean Islands,

and Cyrenaica), and C. syiaca Boiss is found in the

eastern part (Palestine).

5056 SALAD CROPS/Other Types of Salad Crops