Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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0019 Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracca var. gongylodes),

belonging to the family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae), is

a biennial herbaceous swollen bulb-like stem vege-

table grown as an annual. Writers in ancient Rome

had described kohlrabi, which was developed in

northern Europe in the fifteenth century. It is a minor

crop grown in temperate countries and in some sub-

tropical areas. The tubers or swollen stems, which

develop above the ground, may be due to secondary

growth in thickness. The tuber is harvested before it

becomes tough or woody.

0020 Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina) belongs to the

family Oxaliolaceae. It is an ancient crop cultivated

by preColumbian people and in the Andean high-

lands. Commercial production occurs in Mexico,

Central America, and the South Island of New

Zealand.

0021 Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa L.) belongs to Umbelli-

ferae (Apiaceae) family. It is a native biennial of

Europe and Western Asia and is cultivated for its

large, fleshy taproots and also for its leaves. It was

introduced to the West Indies in 1564 but grows well

in the tropics only at high altitudes. The Romans and

Greeks used it for medicinal purposes and food in

ancient times.

0022 Rhubarb (Rheum spp.) is a very early and high-

yielding vegetable crop, well suited for cultivation in

climatically cool regions. The UK, The Netherlands,

Germany, the Nordic countries, Canada, and the USA

are the main cultivation regions for rhubarb. It is a

minor commercial crop plant but very common in

gardens. Rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum) is a long-

lived perennial plant, with edible stalks, and was

originally native to Siberia.

Morphology of Edible Parts

0023 American wintergreen plants are erect, or prostrate,

with creeping stems, giving rise to erect branches

(15 cm high and leafy at the top). The lower leaves

are alternate and serrated with short petioles, but the

top leaves are oval, 2.5–5 cm long, apiculate, glau-

cous, and shining above. The flowers are solitary or in

racemes or panicles, and scarlet-colored.

0024 The edible portion of asparagus is the spear that

develops from the crown. Green asparagus, which is

the greater portion of the crop, is cut 2.5–5 cm below

the soil surface. Asparagus spears are usually har-

vested before excessive elongation occurs to keep

the tenderness. The spears are harvested when the

tip is about to emerge or just protrudes through the

soil surface.

0025 Baby corn is a herbaceous monocotyledon and

warm season annual. Plants are monoecious with

male flowers borne as the terminal inflorescence

(tassels) on the main stem, and female flowers borne

separately as lateral inflorescence (ears) developing at

the leaf axils. Plants produce one or more ears. Baby

corn is the young ear of maize plant harvested before

fertilization when the silks have just emerged. The

stem-like, dehusked, light yellow-colored, and tender

ears of baby corn are used in salads.

0026The broccoli plant forms a kind of head consisting

of green buds and thick fleshy flower stalks. The

terminal head is rather loose and green in color, and

the flower stalks are longer than those of cauliflower.

The internodes are long, and the plant produces axil-

lary flowering shoots in addition to the terminal in-

florescence. The color of the flower buds forming the

edible portion varies from white to green, depending

on the cultivar. The inflorescence comprises fully dif-

ferentiated flower buds, although it is considered to

be a good-quality vegetable if these reach the open

stage. The sprouts in the leaf axils develop strongly,

especially after removal of the terminal head. The

terminal head and the sprouts with bud clusters may

be used in salads but also as a cooked vegetable.

0027The celery plant is characterized by enlarged,

tender, edible petioles or leaf stalks. The petioles are

broad, with sheathing bases. Celery is a biennial;

however, a few strains and related wild species are

cultivated as annuals. The plants start bolting (produ-

cing seed stalks) when exposed to cold temperatures

for a longer time, which makes them unmarketable.

The most common form bears five to 12 thick petioles

in a tight bunch. A less popular form is turnip-rooted

celery, known as celeriac (var. rapaceum). This is a

biennial and is grown in the cool season, but it is also

sensitive to prolonged cold temperatures. In the first

year, the plant normally produces a tight cluster of

petioles and leaves attached to a very compressed

stem. Celery leaves are divided and pinnate with

almost triangular toothed leaflets, which are smooth

and dark green in color. Celery has a broad, furrowed,

and concave leaf stalk. In the second year, the stem

becomes furrowed and branched. Early vegetative

growth is characterized by a fair amount of spread-

ing, but leaves arising from the apex of the short stem

form compact and elongated heads. The root system

of celery is fibrous and spreads with many feeder

roots close to the soil surface. The plant bears

compound clusters (umbels) of small, white, perfect

flowers with five petals and five stamens. The seed,

which is actually a fruit formed from two compressed

carpels enclosing the actual seed, is very small.

0028Dandelion produces deeply toothed leaves in a

basal tuft and bears a single, composite, yellow

flower on a hollow stalk. The cultivated forms of

dandelion produce larger leaves than the weedy

forms. Improved cultivars, mostly of French origin,

SALAD CROPS/Other Types of Salad Crops 5057

are tender, less bitter, slightly greener and larger than

the wild types.

0029 Florence fennel is an annual, very distinct, low-

growing and thickened plant with a very stout stem

that has joints very close to the base. The leaves are

very finely cut and are of a glaucous green color. The

leaf stalks are very broad, of a whitish green hue, and

overlap one another at the base of the stem, forming a

kind of head that varies in size; the inside is white and

sweet. The height of the plant, even when grown for

seed does not exceed 60–75 cm. The broad umbel

with stout, stiff rays bears greenish flowers. The

seed, twice as long as it is wide, is flat on one side

and convex on the other and marked by five thick

yellowish ribs that occupy almost the entire surface of

the skin.

0030 In globe artichoke, the edible part is the young

capitulum, which is harvested when it is still in

rapid growth. The enlarged receptacle (bottom) and

the tender, thickened bases of the bracts are eaten. If

the capitulum is picked at an early stage, all of the

‘heart’ can be eaten after removal of the tough outer

bracts. The part of the stem just below the young head

is edible. In the case of the Jerusalem artichoke, the

underground tubers, which are oblong or extremely

elongated and weigh 80–120 g, are eaten.

0031 Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is

often called turnip-rooted cabbage and is closely re-

lated to cabbage. The stem, which is the edible part, is

greatly enlarged immediately above ground. It is an

excellent vegetable if used before it becomes woody,

tough, and stringy. The most popular varieties of

kohlrabi in India are White Vienna, Green Vienna,

Purple Vienna, and Earliest Ear Furt.

0032 The compact, bushy growth of oca (perennial) is

between 20 and 30 cm in height. Tubers can be eaten

immediately after harvest, but their flavor is better

when exposed to the sun in order to reduce bitterness.

Oca is consumed after boiling, baking, frying, or

pickling and can also be eaten uncooked. Leaves

and young shoots are eaten in salads or as cooked

vegetables.

Chemical and Nutritional Composition

0033 Artichoke has interesting nutritional characteristics

related to its high content of phenolic compounds,

flavonoids, inulin, fiber, and mineral salts. The phen-

olic compounds are mainly derivatives of caffeic acid.

Extracts containing cynarin (1,5-dicatteoyl quinic

acid) have some effects on hepatobiliary disease,

hyperlipidemia, and cholesterol metabolism. The

pharmaceutical industry mainly uses the leaves.

0034 Baby corn is a good source of pro-vitamin A.

Celery is an important source of minerals and

vitamins. Celery leaves also contain higher levels of

vitamin C, carotene, and essential oils. The shape,

color, crispness, pithiness, stringiness, ribbiness, peti-

ole cracking, and flavor contribute to the quality

of stalk and petioles. Celery is quite popular in the

Western world due to its low fat content (0.6 g per

100 g of edible parts.) The composition varies at dif-

ferent stages of maturity; reducing and total sugars

show a marked decline in the leaf blades but an

increased concentration in the petiole from harvest

until the end of storage. Nitrogen increases in leaf

blades and petioles towards the end of storage.

0035Little information is available regarding the nutri-

tional/chemical composition of Florence fennel and

American wintergreen vegetables. However, it is

reported that dandelion leaves are an excellent source

of provitamin A (14 000 IU), vitamin C (35 mg) and

calcium (187 mg) per 100 g of edible parts.

0036The nutritional qualities of oca tubers, with

85% carbohydrate (on a dry-weight basis) are com-

parable to potato, also presenting starch of good

quality. (See Ascorbic Acid: Properties and Determin-

ation; Calcium: Properties and Determination; Caro-

tenoids: Occurrence, Properties and Determination;

Retinol: Properties and Determination; Starch: Struc-

ture, Properties, and Determination.)

Postharvest Handling and Storage

0037Asparagus loses its freshness and quality quickly after

harvest; it is desirable to market or process it as soon

as possible. Cooling of the spears soon after harvest

helps in maintaining quality and improves its market-

ability considerably. Hydrocooling is the best way to

reduce the temperature of asparagus spears rapidly.

Chlorine is usually added in water used for cooling

to minimize the bacterial population. The spears

should be kept at a low temperature, as high tempera-

tures result in the synthesis of more ethylene and

rapid senescence. The losses in tenderness, flavor,

vitamin C, and reducing and total sugars are also

pronounced at higher temperatures. In addition to

general deterioration, spear elongation and develop-

ment of decay take place at moderately high tempera-

tures. An increased rate of fiber development is

directly correlated with spear length and age, and

also with high postharvest temperatures.

0038Asparagus is packed either in plastic film bags or in

boxes or crates without bunching. When the loose-

pack method is adopted, the butts are cut off, and

spears are laid in boxes lined with oily paper with a

layer of wet moss placed in the bottom. Packing only

spears with tightly closed tips can extend the post-

harvest life of asparagus. The packaging of asparagus

in film bags maintains the marketability, edible, and

5058 SALAD CROPS/Other Types of Salad Crops

nutritional qualities by reducing moisture loss, pre-

venting fiber formation, and decreasing the loss of

ascorbic acid, respectively. However, impermeable

film bags can produce off-flavors due to anaerobic

decomposition. Such packaging would lead to uncon-

trolled accumulation of CO

and depletion of O

with possible damage to the product. The film must

be adequately permeable to exchange these gases and

to dissipate the respiratory heat.

0039 Asparagus spears must not be placed horizontally,

as their tips are negatively geotropic and turn upward.

Containers with wide bases and narrow tops should

always be used to accommodate the long tapered

spears. To prevent desiccation, particularly at butt

ends, a high humidity is essential; this can be achieved

by placing the butts of asparagus on wet pads. An-

other way to maintain a high relative humidity inside

the package is to pack spears in perforated films.

Since spears continue to elongate after harvest, there-

fore, headspace should be provided in packaging to

avoid tip damage.

0040 Asparagus can be stored successfully for about 3

weeks at 2



C, but high-quality asparagus can be

maintained in good condition only for 10–14 days

under such conditions. Fresh asparagus is highly per-

ishable and deteriorates rapidly at temperature above



C. Storage at 0



C, coupled with 95% relative

humidity, is generally recommended to prolong the

marketable life of asparagus for about 3–4 weeks, but

asparagus suffers from cold damage if it is held longer

at this temperature. The recommended handling tem-

perature is 2



C along with a relative humidity greater

than 95%. Chilling damage occurs with prolonged

holding at temperatures lower than 2



C. Rapid

sorting, packing, and storage at 0–6



C and 90%

relative humidity help maintain a high quality.

0041 Controlled-atmosphere storage of asparagus re-

duces postharvest deterioration and prevents the de-

velopment of off-flavors, water loss, chlorophyll loss,

and toughening. Exposure of spears to 7+2% CO

for 24 h retards bacterial rots. No cold damage is

observed at 1.7



C and 15% CO

concentration.

Controlled-atmosphere storage of asparagus helps

to reduce decay, retardation or even reversal of

toughening, retention of a more desirable color,

sugar, organic acids and soluble proteins than spears

stored in air. The shelf-life of several leafy vegetables

including asparagus has been reported to be doubled

by immersing the cut ends or dipping the vegetables in

solutions of cycocel (CCC).

0042 Broccoli is harvested shortly before the buds begin

to open while their heads remain compact and cut to

a length of about 20–25 cm. The axillary shoots, as

they develop, are cut at a similar stage to that of the

central head. Harvested broccoli heads are further

trimmed to a length of approximately 15 cm, and

bunches weighing about 700 g are tied together for

packaging. Bunches are further packed in crates hold-

ing 28–30 bunches. The respiration rate of freshly

harvested broccoli is very high in comparison with

that of asparagus, spinach, or sweetcorn. Hence, to

reduce the respiration rate rapidly, broccoli must be

cooled soon after harvest and stored at a low tem-

perature and O

-free environment in order to prolong

the shelf-life. Broccoli should be hydrocooled to

4.4



C or packed in ice immediately after harvest

and kept at 0



C to maintain a good marketable con-

dition. Film wraps can be useful in maintaining a high

relative humidity and extending the storage life.

0043There is no definite stage of maturity at which

celery should be harvested for a satisfactory quality.

Celery plants are cut off just below the soil surface.

Since the plants wilt easily, they should be moved

quickly from the field to the packing house for pre-

paratory operations like stripping to remove suckers

and diseased or damaged leaves, precooling, sorting,

washing, grading, and packaging prior to marketing.

Celery is generally hydrocooled or vacuum-cooled. If

ice is used in crates or waxed cartons, it is advisable to

store celery at around 0



C to avoid decay. To avoid

wilting, packaging in ventilated wraps is advanta-

geous. Box or crate liners should have about one

hole per square foot. Celery can be stored at a tem-

perature of 0–0.6



C and 90–95% relative humidity

for about 8 weeks. Trenching in the field or storing

celery in the pits is practiced in the fall when there is a

danger of freezing before the crop is harvested, but

usually for only a short period of time. An O

level

less than 5% slightly retards yellowing of celery,

and a CO

level above 2.5% may be damaging in

controlled-atmosphere storage. Therefore, all wraps

must be perforated to avoid potentially dangerous

accumulation of CO

or reductions in O

below

1%. Celery in storage absorbs foreign flavors, and

so it should be kept away from the odors of other

products.

0044Dandelion plants are trimmed, washed, and stored

in containers at 0



C and 90–95% relative humidity

to preserve their quality.

0045Florence fennel plants are harvested just above the

taproot. The upper petiole and leaf blades are

trimmed relatively close to the bulb. Fennel has a

good postharvest life if stored at 0



C and high

relative humidity.

0046Globe artichoke flower buds need to be handled

carefully to avoid bruising and desiccation, as phys-

ical injury can accelerate decay as much as a 10



rise in temperature. The harvested buds are placed

into suitable containers for transport to the packing

house, where they are graded according to their size

SALAD CROPS/Other Types of Salad Crops 5059

and quality. Artichoke buds must be precooled as

quickly as possible to retain their quality after har-

vest. Wilting of artichoke can be prevented by hydro-

cooling or by washing the bracts in cool water. Globe

artichoke is then packed in different layers in paper-

lined boxes of different sizes followed by immediate

cold storage. Frosts can injure artichoke buds in the

field, but in the USA, an industry promotional pro-

gram effectively markets frost-affected buds, unless

damaged severely, claiming that they are ‘winter

kissed’ and, therefore, taste better.

0047 The storage life of globe artichoke is related to its

initial quality, since injured and decaying buds at

harvest deteriorate 1.5 times more rapidly than

sound buds, especially when they are held at 4.4



or above. Holding artichoke below 4.4



C can

effectively prevent decay. Storage at a temperature

of 0–2



C and a relative humidity of 95% can help

maintain a good quality for about 10 days. A

temperature of around 0



C for prolonged storage

and 1.7–2.8



C for normal marketing periods is

satisfactory.

0048 Kohlrabi tubers can be stored in a good condition

for 2–3 months at a low temperature (0



C) and high

relative humidity (98–100%) since a high humidity

is essential to prevent shrivelling and toughening.

Packaging in perforated film can be used to reduce

moisture loss. Kohlrabi with attached leaves at 0



has a storage life of only 2 weeks.

0049 Parsnip is harvested either by ploughing or hand-

digging. The roots are usually lifted after removing

the foliage. Harvests are delayed until low tempera-

tures or frosts occur because the root quality is im-

proved under such conditions. With the advancement

of root maturity, starch starts converting into sugars,

and this is accelerated by cold exposure. Parsnip

can be stored in the field unless freezing is severe.

Roots also store well at a temperature of 0



and relative humidity greater than 90%. A high hu-

midity is required to extend the postharvest life be-

cause roots desiccate easily. Like carrots, if parsnip

roots are exposed to ethylene during storage, they

become bitter. Oca’s storage characteristics are rela-

tively good if properly cured, and moisture loss is

minimized.

See also: Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation;

Vegetables of Temperate Climates: Cabbage and

Related Vegetables; Carrot, Parsnip, and Beetroot;

Miscellaneous Root Crops

Further Reading

Kalloo G and Bergh BO (1993) Genetic Improvement of

Vegetable Crops. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Lincoln CP (1987) Vegetables: Characteristics, Production

and Marketing, pp. 173–268. New York: Wiley.

Ryder EJ (1979) Leafy Salad Vegetables. Westport: AVI.

Salunkhe DK and Desia BB (1984) Post Harvest

Biotechnology of Vegetables, vol. II. Boca Raton, FL:

CRC Press.

Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (1998) Handbook of

Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Com-

position, Storage and Processing. New York: Marcel

Dekker.

Wood R (1979) Salad Crops. London: Marshall Cavendish.

Yamaguchi M (1983) World Vegetables: Principles, Pro-

duction and Nutritive Values. Westport: AVI.

Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops

K Gupta, G Talwar, V Jain, K Dhawan and S Jain,

CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Haryana, India

Introduction

0001Root crops and bulbs (radish, carrot, beets, onion,

garlic, etc.) are being consumed (raw or cooked along

with other vegetables) increasingly for salad, have

prominent fleshy, marketable, underground edible

structures, generally have a long storage life, are eco-

nomically important, and used and grown worldwide

for market as well as domestic consumption. Most

root crops are hardy to frost. Radish and turnip are

susceptible to heat injury.

0002Edible, underground salad crops are classified as:

0003Enlarged taproot: beet, carrot, radish, salsify,

turnip, parsnip, celeriac, rutabaga.

0004Tubers: ahipa, potato beans, Chinese artichoke,

coleus potato, Jerusalem artichoke, jicama.

0005Bulbs: onion, leek, garlic, shallot.

0006Root salad is eaten raw as an appetizer, served as a

side dish. Root salad has natural inherent energy and

affects our bodies. Root crops tend to give coldness,

warmth, and strength to the body, make the body

alkaline-acidic (Table 1), and are used for different

therapeutic applications. Their names are given in

different languages in Table 2. Carrot and radish

can be dipped in sauce and eaten as an appetizer.

Some salads are used in cooking to add flavor. Garlic

has a distinct flavor that adds to the taste of many

meat and vegetable dishes. Leek and onion are also

used to add flavor to soups and stews.

5060 SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops

Nutritive Composition

0007 Raw root salad crops and bulbs provide varying

amounts of water, carbohydrates, minerals, and vita-

mins (Tables 3, 4 and 5). Carrot, rutabaga, and coleus

are high in vitamin A and are within the reach of most

consumers.

Root and Tuber

Ahipa:

Pachyrhizus ahipa

(Wedd.) Parodi

Potato beans:

P. tuberosus

(Lam) Sprengel

0008Other names: ajipa, ashipa, frijol chuncho, Central

American tambeans.

tbl0002 Table 2 Names of root salads in different languages

English Chinese French German Italian Japanese Russian Spanish

Root crops Carrot hu luo bo carotte mohre carota ninjin mos kov kul zanahoria

Red beet gen tian cai betterave rote bietola biito, burnaja remolacha

Rough, riibe da orta, shokuyo svekla hortelana,

Potagere rote barba bic. bito, stolovaja r. roja,

Beete tola, kaensa r. de mesa

d insalata

Radish ying tao luo radis, garten- rafano, hatsuka rabanito,

bo ravonet Rettich, ravanello, daikon rabanete,

Radies, radice rabanillo,

Radieschen,

Turnip Wujing navet, mairube, rapa, kabu turneps nalso

n.potagar speiseriibe r. coltivata

Rutabaga, ruidian wu rutabaga, steckrube rutabaga, rutabaya brjukva rutabaga,

Swede, jing navet de navone, nabo succo

Swede, suede n. de suecta.

Turnip

Bulb crops Garlic da suan ail, a. ordi- knoblauch aglio, ninniku cesnok ajo

Naire, a. domestico ajo comun

a. blane

Leek jiu cong poireau, porree porro liiki luk porkej ajo porro

Porreau porretta a. puerro

Onion yang cong oignon speisezwiebel, cipolla tam an egi luk repcatyj cebolla

Kiichenzwiebel,

tbl0001 Table 1 Commonly used vegetables/salad, their energies, flavor, organs, and therapeutic applications, according to the traditional

Chinese concept of food and nutrition

Name Energy/taste Organs Therapeutic conditions

Beet Neutral: sweet Spleen Nourishes fluids; rheumatic pains, congested chest,

poor energy circulation

Carrot Neutral: sweet Lung, spleen Diuretic and digestive, improves eyes, removes swellings

and tumors, indigestion, cough, dysentery, difficult urination,

skin eruptions, chronic diarrhea

Garlic Warm: pungent Lungs, stomach, spleen Warms, expels cold, promotes energy, circulation, destroys

worms, kills parasites, arthritis, cold, abdominal pain, edema,

diarrhea, dysentery, whooping cough

Onion Warm: pungent Lungs, stomach Diuretic, expectorant, external application for Tr i c h o m o n a s

vaginalis and ulcers, common cold, headache, constipation,

cold, abdominal pain, dysentery, dysuria, mastitis, nasal

congestion, facial edema

Radish (seed) Cool: sweet, pungent Lungs, stomach Detoxifies, promotes digestion, eliminates

hot mucus discharge, expels cold; abdominal swelling

due to indigestion, laryngitis due to continual cough

with mucus discharge, vomiting of blood, nose bleeding,

dysentery, headache, bloating, hoarseness, diabetes

SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops 5061

0009 Ahipa and potato beans belong to family Fabaceae

(Leguminoseae) and have long trailing vines. Ahipa is

native to the south-western Amazon, near Bolivia or

northern Argentina. Production and consumption are

restricted to Bolivia and Peru. Potato beans are widely

adaptated to tropical, subtropical, and temperate

regions and resemble yam beans which are native to

South America. P. ahipa vines are shorter than those

of P. tuberosus. Leaves are entire and rhomboidal ovate

in shape. To enhance root enlargement, developing

flowers are removed. The roots of P. ahipa are smaller

and mature earlier than those of P. tuberosus.Potato

bean roots have a succulent, crispy, white interior.

Swollen tubers are like roots, and are mainly eaten

raw for salad: all other plant parts are toxic. Only

tuberous roots are harvested. The thin, pale yellow

skin does little to prevent desiccation; the root is com-

monly left in the ground until needed.

Arracacha:

Arracacia xanthorrhiza

0010Other names: apio, Peruvian carrot, Peruvian pars-

nip, mandioquina-salsa, zanahoria, racacha.

0011Arracacha belongs to the family Apiaceae (Umbel-

lifereae), and is a dicotyledonous perennial which is a

tbl0004 Table 4 Vitamin contents of root salad crops (mg/100 gm fresh weight basis)

Crop Vit. A (IU) Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C

Arracacha – 0.06 0.04 3.4 28.0

Beet root 20 0.03 0.05 0.4 10

Carrot 1100 0.04 0.02 0.2 4

Coleus 540 0.05 0.02 1.00 1.0

Garlic – 0.20 0.08 0.50 11

Jerusalem Artichoke 20 0.19 0.08 1.20 7

Leek 75 0.08 0.05 0.45 15

Onion 40 0.05 0.03 0.15 9

Parsnip 30 0.08 0.09 0.2 16

Red radish Trace 0.03 Trace 0.4 17

Rutabaga 580 0.07 0.07 1.1 43

Salsify 10 0.04 0.04 0.4 11

Shallot 0.06 0.20 0.20 8

Squaw Root Trace 0.11 0.12 3.0 13.0

Table beet Green 6250 0.1 0.21 0.4 31

Turnip Trace 0.04 0.07 0.6 36

White radish – 0.03 0.02 0.5 24

Yam Beans Trace 0.05 0.03 0.3 20.0

IU ¼ 0.3 mg Vitamin A alcohol.

tbl0003 Table 3 Chemical composition of root salad crops (per 100 gm fresh weight basis)

Crop Energy (Cal.) Water (%) Proteins (g) Fats (g) Carbohydrates (g) Dietary fiber (g) Totalash (g)

Arracacha 104 73.0 0.8 0.20 24.9 0.60 1.10

Beet root 43 87 1.6 0.1 9.9 0.9 0.97

Carrot 125 86.0–88.8 0.7–0.9 0.2–0.5 6.0–10.0 1.2–2.4 1.1

Coleus 19 77.0 1.3 0.30 22.0 1.10 1.0

Garlic 131 64.0 6.2 0.35 27.9 1.0 1.3

Jerusalem Artichoke 72 79.0 2.2 1.30 16.6 0.85 1.6

Leek 56 83.0 1.9 0.30 12.6 1.4 1.1

Onion 36 90.8 1.3 0.18 8.0 0.52 0.40

Parsnip 76 79 1.7 0.5 17.5 2.0 1.10

Red radish 49 95.4 0.7 0.2 1.9 1.9 –

Rutabaga 46 87 1.1 0.1 11.0 1.20 0.79

Salsify 81 78 2.9 0.6 18.0 1.4 0.96

Shallot 72 79.8 2.4 0.10 16.8 0.7 0.8

Squaw Root 154 60.0 4.6 – 30.8 1.80 –

Table beet Green 23 92 2.0 0.35 4.5 1.7 1.90

Turnip 30 92 1.0 0.2 6.6 0.90 0.74

White radish 64 93.0 0.8 0.1 2.9 6.6 2.72

Yacon – 76.0 1.3 3.50 – 3.80 –

Yam Bean 40 87.4 0.2 1.20 8.8 0.60 0.30

5062 SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops

native of the Andean highlands from Venezuela to

Bolivia. It is considered to be important as the white

potato in some areas of the Andes. It is the preferred

staple food of much of South America and is very

popular in southern and central Brazil, where it is

grown commercially. Wild types have been found in

Peru and considerable diversity is found in Ecuador.

0012 Arracacha is similar to carrot and celery, and has a

mild carrot or celery-like flavor. Enlarged, fleshy,

lateral roots resemble white carrots; the flesh is

yellowish and a ring of cambium tissue is purple.

The cultivars can vary in color, from white (blanca),

to cream yellow (amarilla) and orange-purple (mor-

ada). Productive plants develop several (as many as

10) lateral carrot-sized roots clustered around the

main rootstock. Root length typically ranges from 5

to 25 cm with diameter from 2 to 6 cm. The yield

ranges between 5 and 15 t ha

1

. Dark green, purple-

tinged petioles resemble celery and are eaten raw or

cooked. Roots must be cooked and are commonly

fried, boiled, or baked. They have an unusual taste,

resembling a mixture of celery, carrot, and parsnips,

roast chestnut combined with celery and carrot

flavor. Starch content varies from 10 to 25%. This

vegetable is easily digestible and is often prepared for

infants and elderly.

Beet:

Beta vulgaris

subsp. Rubra

0013 Beet is a fairly hardy biennial, which belongs to the

family Chenopodiaceae. It is grown primarily for

roots and has been cultivated as a potherb or green

throughout recorded history. It is an important

home garden and market vegetable crop and is also

grown for shipping to distant marketplaces and for

processing. Beets are believed to be native to the

Mediterranean area of Europe and North Africa and

North America.

0014The major producers of sugar beets are Russia,

France, the USA, Germany, Poland, and Italy. Most

commercial production of beet is for processing and

this was an $8 million industry in 1997.

0015Four general classes of beetroot varieties are

reported which are oblate or top-shaded, oval, half-

long and long conical. Only varieties belonging to the

root oblate class are of commercial importance.

Based on red or yellow color, each class can be sub-

divided into varieties that also differ in form, earli-

ness, and vigor, as shown in Table 6.

0016Beet is a good source of carbohydrates (sugar). It

contain two pigments; the deep red color is beta-

cyanin and beta-xanthin is a yellow pigment.

0017Freezing, drying, or canning can preserve beets.

Uniform dark red color without zones or rings and

tender flesh free of fiber are desirable processing

qualities. Beets to be dehydrated are harvested at

slightly later stage of maturity than those used for

canning. Detroit Dark Red and Cylindra are the best

varieties for canning and pickling. Beets are also

added to soups and beet juice is used for coloring in

many different products, as a primary ingredient of

borscht (a Russian stock soup).

0018The best storage temperature for beets is nearly

freezing point, 0



C (32



F) with 95



humidity.

Topped beets store well for 3–5 months.

Carrot:

Daucus carota

sp. sativus (Hoffm.), (2

= 18)

0019Carrot is a biennial, belonging to the family Apiaceae,

and is an important vegetable for its fleshy edible,

tbl0005 Table 5 Mineral contents of root salad crops (mg/100 gm fresh weight basis)

Crop Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Phosphorus Iron

Arracacha – – 26 – 52 0.9

Beet Root 105 335 16 23 33 0.7

Carrot 40 240 34–80 9.0 25–53 0.4–2.2

Coleus – 334 17 – – 6.0

Garlic – 50 52 – – 1.1

Jerusalem Artichoke – 478 18 15 80 3.0

Leek 16 230 55 25 43 1.9

Onion 6 156 26 11 33 0.4

Parsnip 12 541 50 – 77 0.7

Radish (red) 11 240 19 5 20 0.6

Radish (white) 27 220 30 15 25 0.4

Rutabaga 8 257 66 16 39 0.4

Salsify 13 380 47 23 66 1.5

Squaw Root 12 340 440 32 165 6.5

Table beet green 148 565 121 89 40 3.3

Turnip (medium) 50 207 30.0 150 32 0.3

Yacon – high – – – –

Yam Bean 4 144 17 16 18 0.5

SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops 5063

colorful roots. It varies in colour from white, yellow,

orange, light purple, deep red to deep violet. It is

widely grown in spring, summer, and fall in temperate

countries and during the winter in tropical and sub-

tropical regions.

0020 Afghanistan is considered a center of origin, be-

cause the greatest diversity of wild types is found

there. South-west Asia and eastern Mediterranean

regions are considered to be secondary centers of

diversity of wild type and domestication. Purple and

yellow carrot variants were introduced into Europe,

then to India, China, and Japan.

0021 Carrot production for the fresh market increased

from $355 million to $441 million in the year 1997.

The market for processing carrots is considerably

smaller than the fresh market, with a production

value of $37.5 million in 1997. In the USA 99 000

acres of carrot is grown for fresh-market sales, of

which 70 900 acres of carrot is grown in California.

The total area for processing carrots in the USA is

23 800 acres.

0022 Carrots may be grouped into two types: (1) tem-

perate or European cultivars, which are biennial,

orange in color and uniform in thickness with a

small core; and (2) tropical or Asiatic cultivars,

which are annual, red in color, more juicy, and have

a bigger core and a heavier top. The most important

bunching varieties of carrot in the USA are Imperator,

Gold Spike, and Gold Pak, which have long slender

roots with a good smooth exterior whereas the

varieties Red Cored Chantenay, Royal Chantenay,

and Autumn King are good colored and popular for

processing. Nantes is a good home garden variety.

0023Some important and commonly grown varieties of

carrot in India are Amsterdam, Barlikuner, Chante-

nay, Royal Chantenay, Delattya, Honey Sweet, Kar-

otina, Pusa Kesser, Pusa Meghalli, Rubica, and Pusa

Yamadagni.

0024Carrot is one of the most nutritious vegetables

consumed both raw and processed. Gazraila is a

sweet dish prepared by cooking shredded carrot in

milk and sugar and is much liked in North India.

0025Carrots are low in calories and are an excellent

source (ranging from 41 to 475 mgg

1

fresh weight)

of b-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, which is good

for eyesight. A serving size of 78 g carrot has only

35 cal and 2 g dietary fiber, along with 270% of the

recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of vitamin A,

10% of the RDA of vitamin C, and 2% of the

RDA for calcium. Carrot roots are a rich source of

carotenoids, which contains different types of

carotene, i.e., b-carotene (45–80%), a-carotene

(15– 40%), g-carotene (2–10%) and others (3–6%).

Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, and vitamin C

are also present in appreciable amounts in carrot

roots.

0026Some volatile constituents are also present, such as

a-pinene, camphene, b-pinene, myrcene, a-terpinene,

p-cymene, limonene, g-terpinene, terpinolene, caryo-

phyllene, b-bisabolene, g-bisalolene, heptenol, dedo-

cenal, myristicin, and falacarinol in stem-distilled oil

of carrots.

0027The flavor of carrots is influenced by free sugars

glucose, fructose, and sucrose, which contribute to

sweetness; volatile mono and sesquiterpenoids,

which contribute to harshness, 2-nonenal, which

imparts a cooked flavor; isocoumarin and other

phenolic compounds, which impart bitterness; 2-

methyoxy-3 butypyrazine, which contributes to the

carrot aroma; free amino acids, which contribute to

the delicate flavor; and ionones, which impart a floral

off-flavor. Carrot roots contain several times more

sucrose than glucose or fructose.

0028Carrots are a versatile vegetable that can be served

alone, raw or cooked, or, in combination with meats,

baked, fried, saute

ed, and pickled. A small portion of

total production is used for making the fermented

product kanji, an appetizing drink.

0029Carrots are processed into products such as canned

carrots, dehydrated carrots, juice, beverages, candy,

preserves, and halva. Carrot leaves are used to extract

protein. Carrot tops and roots are fed to animals to

increase milk yield and used in the preparation of

poultry feed.

0030Carrots possess many medicinal properties and are

used in ayurvedic medicine. Carrot is considered a

tbl0006 Table 6 Classification of garden beets

Description Cultivars

Table beets

Flat shape

Red Flat Egyptian

Yellow Burpee Golden

Top shape

Light red Light Red crosby

Red Crosby Egyptian – popular for market

Dark red Early Wonder – popular for market

Yellow Yellow turnip

Globe shape

Red Detroit Dark Red, Pacemaker – good for

processing and all-purpose

Yellow Yellow Tankard

Elongate

Red Long Dark Blood, Cylindra

Yellow Long Yellow

Black Long Black

Benching beets

Flat shape Green Top Bunching

Red

Canning beets

Globe shape Ruby Queen

Red

5064 SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops

popular remedy for jaundice. Its juice has diuretic and

nitrogen-balancing properties, and thus has been

found to be effective for the elimination of uric acid.

b-carotene acts as a free radical-trapping agent and a

singlet oxygen quencher in biological systems. b -

carotene has been reported to reduce the risk of cancer

of the lungs, cervix, easophagus, and stomach, and

cataract formation. Carrot extract has antioxidant

properties. The combination of carrot and orange

juice was found to reduce the oxidation of low-density

lipoproteins in habitual cigarette smokers. Carrot

seeds have been reported to possess antifertility

activity in female albino rats.

0031 Carrots are harvested when the roots are 2–2.5 cm

in diameter. Fall carrots, if mulched in certain areas,

can be left in the ground all winter and harvested as

needed. After harvest, prompt cooling to 5



Cor

below extends the storage life of carrot roots. Mature

roots can be stored for 7–9 months at 0–1



C tem-

perature coupled with 90–100% relative humidity.

Chinese artichoke:

Stachys affinis

Bunge

0032 Other names: Chryorogi, Japanese artichoke, knot

root, kon loh (China).

0033 The Chinese artichoke is a perennial herb,

belonging to the Lamiceae (Labiateae) family, and is

grown for its tubers (cylindrical) while constricted

internodal segments, appearing bead-like on a

square-shaped stem, and petiolated ovate leaves

form an opposite pair on the stem. Flowers are

white or pink. The tubers are usually pickled, and

are a popular food in China and Japan and are also

eaten fried or fresh in salads. Much of the carbo-

hydrate (about 60%) is the tetrasaccharide, i.e.,

stachyose. Tubers are dug, washed, and eaten fresh

or after cooking. They are commonly stored in

damp sand.

Coleus potatoes:

Coleus parviflorus

(Chinese

potato)

0034 Other names: Sudan or Hausa potato (Solenostemon

rotundifolius (Poir), J.K. Morton: Coleus rotundifo-

lius, Livingston; kaffir or hausa potato: Pleetranthus

esculantus (N.E. Br.).

0035 The coleus potato is native to southern India. It is

commonly called kourka and is also grown in tropical

and subtropical regions of Asia, Sri Lanka, and

Africa. The plant is an annual, belong to the Lamia-

ceae (Labiatae), family. It has simple leaves with

serrate margins, oppositely attached to a succulent,

square-shaped stem. Clusters of white-fleshed, small,

round, brown or black starchy tubers are present

at the base of the primary stem. Leaves can be used

for flavoring. Tubers are eaten raw or cooked,

pickled, and eaten as condiments in India. Leaves

and roots have an aromatic flavor, and contain

about 11–20% carbohydrate and 1–5% proteins.

Harvest should not be delayed, as quality declines

with overmaturity. It is stored well in cool, well-

ventilated conditions.

Jerusalem artichoke:

Helianthus tuberosus

= 102)

0036Other names: girasole, topinambour, and sunchoke.

Jerusalem artichoke.

0037The Jerusalem artichoke is a herbaceous perennial

plant, cropped as an annual, belonging to the Aster-

aceae (Compositae) family. Plants can be found grow-

ing wild from Kansas north to Minnesota and as far

east as Nova Scotia in Canada and central USA. The

Jerusalem artichoke is endemic to North America.

Native American Indians were utilizing the tubers

long before European colonization. It is not an arti-

choke: derived from the Italian, girasole articocco,it

tastes like a globe artichoke, Cynara scolymus.

0038The fleshy, thin-skinned tubers are variable in size,

shape, and highly branched, and the inside is white

with a crispy and watery texture. Tuber colors very

from white to yellow and sometimes red or purple.

Tuber carbohydrate content ranges from 14.5 to 20%;

of this, 65–82% is fructose and the inulin content is

22.4% in some varieties. Only two varieties, Mam-

moth white French and Sutton’s white, are widely

grown. V71, D1, D2, Patate Vilmorin, Comber

Challenger, and Moder are also important cultivars.

0039A unique feature of Jerusalem artichoke is the pro-

duction of inulin, a polymer of fructose (which stores

carbohydrate and is a suitable food for diabetics).

Tubers are used raw in salad or cooked like potatoes

and are also used for animal feeding. Tubers are

utilized for sugar extraction, fuel alcohol production,

as a source of fructose, and for the preparation of

5-hydroxy methyl furfural.

0040Tubers are harvested in the late fall when stems are

completely senescent or killed by cold temperature.

Stems are cut away to facilitate harvesting. Yields

vary by 15–40 t h

1

. Careful handling during harvest

and postharvest is necessary because the thin-

skinned tubers bruise easily and are subject to rapid

desiccation. Harvested tubers can be stored for sev-

eral months at 0–2



C and at 95% relative humidity.

Parsnip:

Pastinaca saliva

l./P.

sylvestris

(2n = 22)

0041Parsnip belongs to the family Umbellifereae and is

native to the Mediterranean region. It was introduced

to the West Indies in 1564 but grows well in the

tropics, but only at high altitudes. The Romans

utilized the wild form for medicine and food.

0042Parsnips have a sweet taste and a slight mucilagi-

nous texture. The edible portion is a long, tapered,

SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops 5065

fleshy axis formed by hypocotyls. Large roots have an

excellent, sweet flavor, and can be appreciated better

when they are cooked and served cold. Small mini-

parsnips can be grated raw and served in salad.

Smooth-skinned ‘Lancer’ is a recommended Mini-

parsnip. Roots have been reported to contain three

phytotoxic, mutagenic, and photocarcinogenic furo-

coumarins that persist through normal cooking. They

will melanize skin and have been used to treat depig-

mented skin and also psoriasis. Workers handling

parsnips have frequently reported dermatitis.

Radish:

Raphanus sativus

L. ssp. Salivus (2n = 18)

0043 The radish belongs to the Crucifereae (Brassicaceae),

mustard family. It is a popular salad crop for home

gardening and fresh market (Table 7). Raphanus is a

latinized form of the Greek rephanos, which means

‘easily reared.’ Radish was a common food crop in

Egypt. The eastern Mediterranean region, China, and

middle Asia are considered to be the origin of radish.

China is the center of origin because wild radish

still exists in China. The ancient Greeks prized rad-

ishes so much that they made small replicas of them in

gold. In 1544, a German botanist reported seeing

radishes that weighed 100 lb (45 kg). Radishes

were common in England in 1586 and were among

the first European crops introduced to America by the

Spaniards. By 1629, they were being cultivated in

Massachusetts.

0044The varieties evolved in India can broadly be cat-

egorized into two groups: Asiatic (tropical) or annual

types and European (temperate) or biennial types.

Several Asiatic or tropical varieties such as Japanese

White, Pusa Desi, Pusa Chetki, and Pusa Reshmi are

grown extensively in India. The Indian Agricultural

Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi has released

Pusa Himani as an improved variety of radish, having

white skin, crisp flesh, and sweet flavor. Cultivar

CO-1 has recently been released by Tamilnadu

Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

0045The pink color of the radish roots is due to the

presence of anthocyanin pigment. The characteristic

pungent flavor and taste of radish roots are due to the

high content of volatile alkaloid isothiocyanate

(trans-4-methyl thiobutenyl isothiocyanate: MTB-

ITC). For salad purposes, selection is towards low

pungency.

0046Although radish is consumed worldwide, it con-

tributes little to nutrition. Radish is low in calories

and is a good source of vitamin C (15– 40 mg 100 g

1

fresh wt). One serving size of 85 g has only 15 cal and

this will provide 30% of the RDA of vitamin C and

20% of the RDA for calcium. Radish contains glu-

cose as the major sugar and smaller quantities of

sucrose and fructose. Pectin and pentosans are also

reported to be present. Pink-skinned radishes are gen-

erally richer in ascorbic acid than white-skinned ones.

Radish leaves are a good source of extraction of

protein on a commercial scale. The seeds are a poten-

tial source of nondrying fatty oil suitable for soap

maturing.

0047Radish roots are eaten raw as salad and as a side

item and cooked as vegetables. The very characteris-

tic flavor is popular in Japan, the Philippines, and

Hawaii, and roots are used to prepare food products

such as takuwan and cabaizuku. It increases appetite,

produces cooling effects, and prevents constipation.

Radish roots are considered to be good for patients

suffering from liver trouble, gallbladder ailments,

hemorrhoids (piles), jaundice, and enlarged spleen.

The seeds are said to be carminative, diuretic, expec-

torant, and peptic. The seed oil is used to make soap.

0048The edible roots become ready for harvesting in

about 25–60 days depending on the variety. Radishes

grown for the home garden are pulled by hand and

laid in bunches of 6–12 in the field and washed to

remove soil. They are usually packed in baskets or

crates and iced for transport to market. The tops of

winter radish are removed before they are stored,

Mechanical harvesters are used for commercially

grown crops in the USA.

tbl0007 Table 7 Classification of radish cultivars depending on the

season

Summer radish

(approximately 25 days to maturity)

Cultivar

Round

Red Cavelier, Cherry-Beauty,

Comet, Sparkler,

Early Scarlet

Red/white Sparkler

White/yellow Golden of Globe,

Snowboll

Half-long French Breakfast

Red/white Icicle

White

Long-rooted Cinnicinnati Market,

white Icicle, long

Scarlet, Short Top,

Strasburg, Stuttgart,

white Vienna

All-season radish

(approximately 45 days

to maturity)

Summer cross hybrid

Wint er radish

(approximately 60 days

to maturity)

Round

Black Round Black Spanish

Elongated

Red China Rose

White White Chinese

5066 SALAD CROPS/Root, Bulb, and Tuber Crops