Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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marketed products have an aromatic content over

225 g Na hl

1

of pure alcohol.

0036 Heavy rum or grand aro

me (Wedderburn and

Plummer in Jamaica) is molasses-based. The wash is

diluted with prefermented distillery waste water

(slops) instead of water. The wash containers are

often wood-made. The fermentation is a true ecosys-

tem, where only Schizosaccharomyces yeast strains

are able to perform alcoholic fermentation; mean-

while there is important spontaneous bacterial activ-

ity. Length of fermentation is long: 7–15 days. Heavy

rums, which are a peculiar form of traditional rums,

are not used as a beverage, but as an ingredient of

blends, and as an aromatic agent in confectionery and

cooking. The content of aromatic compounds is very

high compared to the other rums – generally between

800 and 1500 g NA hl

1

of pure alcohol. Rumversch-

nitt, or German rum, is a blend of potato alcohol with

heavy rum, providing aromatic flavors.

0037 Light rum and the traditional rums, heavy rum,

agricole, and rum de sucrerie, are the four basic rum

types. Depending on postdistillation treatments they

will have various color and organoleptic properties

(Table 4). There are three color categories that gener-

ally relate to the length of maturation; the longer the

maturation period, the darker the color. However, in

some raw rums coloration can be derived from added

caramel and some aged rums may be treated to

remove the color.

0038 White rums are potable spirits sold without

coloring. They are made in two ways:

0039 They can be obtained from raw rum which, after a

short maturing period to eliminate the pungent

highly volatile compounds, is diluted to the com-

mercial strength.

0040 Alternatively, white rum is sometimes made from

matured spirits that have been treated with acti-

vated charcoal, and mixed with sugarcane alcohol.

The Cuban Havana Club Silver dry is one such

product.

0041 Straw-colored rums are matured for several

months in huge oak casks, during which time they

adopt a light coloration, resulting from exchanges

with the cask walls. The organoleptic properties of

these products are halfway between white rum and

aged rum.

0042 Old rums are obtained after maturation in previ-

ously used oak barrels, of 170–650 liters capacity,

generally for a period of 3 years. During the aging

process, many changes occur in the raw spirit, which

becomes darker, by leaching compounds from the

barrel to the spirit. There are also changes to the

organoleptic properties of the spirit, for example,

oxidation and hydrolysis reactions involving lignin

from the barrels, producing aromatic aldehydes.

The very old rums are appreciated in much the same

way as other matured spirits like malt whisky and

brandy.

0043The ethanol content of rums varies from one prod-

uct to another. The rum produced in the English-

speaking Caribbean islands is often 43% by volume,

but in the French-speaking islands it is 50% by

volume. The aged products are generally lower in

alcohol content than the white ones – between 37

and 45% by volume. However, there are products

with very high ethanol content, such as Jack Iron

(79% by volume) in Carriacou, Strong Rum (79%

by volume) in Grenada, and Puncheon (75% by

volume) in Trinidad. In western markets there are

many distributor brands. Those distributors often

use raw rum from the West Indies to elaborate their

products.

Rum Market

0044Rum was the world’s leading spirit in the 1980s with

an annual volume of 9 500 000 hl of pure alcohol,

while the annual volume of whisky and vodka re-

spectively was of 9 000 000 hl of pure alcohol. Now-

adays, after vodka and whisky, rum is the third spirit

consumed through the world, with more than 80

million 9-liter cases sold in 1998. The US market

leads, with a sales volume of 12 million cases,

amounting to $1.5 billion, of which half is sold by

Bacardi, followed by Captain Morgan, Castillo, and

Havana Club. Bacardi, with $1840 million, was

second in the list of top 100 spirit brands world retail

sales value in 1995 after Stolichnaya vodka, which

was first with $2090 million sales. The second

rum brand was Captain Morgan which was 67th in

this Top 100, with $290 million. The world’s six

leading rum brands ranked by retail value are

shown in Table 5.

0045With regard to consumption, USA has the highest

rate, followed by the Philippines, Mexico, India, Ger-

many, Colombia, the Czech and Slovak republics,

Venezuela, Canada, and France.

tbl0005Table 5 The world’s top rums in 1995

Rank Brand Brand owner Sales

1 Bacardi Bacardi Martini 18.76

2 Tanduey Tanduay Distillery 14.00

3 Captain Morgan The Seagram Co. 1.90

4 Gran Reserva Santa Teresa 1.40

5 Castillo Bacardi Martini 1.34

6 Cacique The Seagram Co. 1.25

In millions of 9-liter cases.

5026 RUM

Conclusions

0046 Rum is a product steeped in history, pictures, and

flavor, associated with seasonings and condiments.

It is exceptional among spirits because of its range

of products, uses, and variety of applications, as a

beverage and as a flavor ingredient in foods.

0047 Nowadays knowing about dietetics reveals that

food value is not only nutritional. On an individual

basis, food is also a source of pleasure and symbols.

The composition of rum and its appreciation are

plenty of elements to satisfy consumers’ expectations.

0048 The modern consumer search for local products

opens a perspective for traditional foodstuffs which

are vehicles of aroma.

0049 On all alcoholic beverage packaging, in France, it is

a legal obligation to display: A consommer avec

mode

ration (i.e., to be taken in moderation). Now,

can I propose a toast?

See also: Alcohol: Properties and Determination; Sugar:

Sugarcane; Whisky, Whiskey, and Bourbon: Products

and Manufacture; Yeasts

Further Reading

Arroyo R (1945) Studies on Rum. Research bulletin 5.

Puerto Rico: Agricultural Experimentation Station,

University of Puerto-Rico.

Fahrasmane L and Ganou-Parfait B (1997) De la Canne au

Rhum. Paris: INRA Editions.

Guillaume J (1946) Le Rhum, sa Fabrication et sa Chimie.

Annecy, France: Depollier.

Hamilton E (1995) Rums of the Eastern Caribbean. PO Box

771, Culebra, Puerto-Rico 00775: Tafia Publishing.

Huetz de Lemps (1997) Histoire du Rhum. Paris: E

ditions

Desjonqueres.

INRA (1975) Symposium International sur le Rhum et

Alcools De

rive

s de la Canne a

Sucre. Annales de Tech-

nologie Agricole 24: 3–4, 3237–495.

Kervegant D (1946) Rhums et Eaux-de-vie de Canne.

Vannes, France: Editions du Golf.

RYE

M G Lindhauer and J Dreisoerner, Federal Centre

for Cereal, Potato and Lipid Research, Detmold,

Germany

Background

0001 Botanically, the rye (Secale cereale L.) belongs to

the family of grasses (Gramineae). The rye plant is

characterized by a culm, ranging in length from 65 to

200 cm, depending on the cultivar. The 5–20-cm-long

four-cornered ear consists of single spikelets covered

by lemmas with long awns. The blue-green grains are

5–9 mm in length and can be easily removed from the

spike when ripe. For cultivation, winter rye varieties

are preferred, as they are normally higher yielding

than summer rye cultivars.

0002 Rye is thought to have originated around 8000 bc

in south-west Asia, probably in the area of the present

states of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. From that area, rye

spread out for centuries, although the exact route is

not known. About the eighth century bc, farmers in

Central Europe considered rye as a weed in wheat and

barley crops, as it often exhibited a better growth

performance and yields, obviously due to its drought

resistance and ability to grow on poor soils, than the

primary cereals. Because it is often a weed in older

cereals, rye (together with oats) is also called a

‘secondary cereal’.

0003Nowadays, rye is a specialty of the northern lati-

tudes between 50 and 65



degrees latitude. Its main

cultivation area is in the north-west part of the east-

ern hemisphere, roughly between the Ural mountains

in the east and the North Sea in the west. During the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rye was eventu-

ally brought by European settlers from Central

Europe to North America and western South Amer-

ica, and during the nineteenth century, it was intro-

duced into Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Australia, and

South Africa.

Agronomic Significance

0004Rye is a cereal with modest requirements in terms

of soil, fertilization, and climate. Particularly on

poor sandy soils, as in northern and north-western

parts of Poland and Germany, which have a limited

nutrient and water availability, and because of

its relatively good winter hardness, rye has an

overall better performance than other cereals and

should not be replaced in the crop-rotation system.

But as a result of hybrid breeding rye can now

compete in yield formation even on more fertile

soils.

RYE 5027

0005 The greatest rye producer used to be the former

Soviet Union, producing 11–13 million tonnes per

year. Now, this has been split into two main parts:

Russian Federation 6–8 million tonnes and Belarus 3

million tonnes. The second highest producing country

is Poland, with 5–6 million tonnes, followed by Ger-

many, with 4–5 million tonnes. The Nordic and Baltic

countries also have a specific tradition in rye utiliza-

tion and are relatively small producers; yearly pro-

duction fluctuates with the weather conditions at the

time of sowing and the overwintering conditions.

0006 Yield performance shows a broad range depend-

ing on the agricultural system, especially on the

availability of resources like fertilizer, pesticides and

high-yielding varieties, and on climatic conditions.

Statistical data for 1999 show that Germany had the

highest yield, with 57.9 dt ha

1

(decitons per hectare),

followed by Switzerland (53.7 dt ha

1

) and Scandi-

navia (Sweden and Norway: 47.9 dt ha

1

; Denmark:

46.5 dt ha

1

). In major rye-producing countries like

Russia, the yields were 13.5 dt ha

1

, and in Poland

23.1 dt ha

1

. For comparison, the average yields in

North America were 20.6 dt ha

1

in 1999.

0007 The most important diseases in rye are snow mold

(Microdochium nivale), leaf rust (Puccinia recon-

dita), powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis), foot rot

(Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides, Fusarium ssp.),

head blight (Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum,

Microdochium nivale) and ergot (Claviceps pur-

purea). This latter fungus is typical for cultivated

grasses prefers to grow on rye. Instead of a rye kernel

it is up to 2.5 cm long outside black violet and inside

grayish white sclerotium develops in a spikelet and as

such it is clearly visible in an infected ear in the field.

During harvest it gets into the bulk grain. The scler-

otia of Claviceps purpurea are known as ergot; they

contain specific poisonous alkaloids, so-called ergot

alkaloids, which cause different symptoms, from diz-

ziness to cramps, resulting in neuronal disorders in

the case of chronic poisoning. Since the ninth century,

ergot poisoning has been implicated in several epi-

demics in central Europe during the Middle Ages.

Today, ergot in rye is no longer a problem due to the

use of efficient cleaning and sieving systems in flour

mills preventing ergot from contaminating rye flour.

The EU has specified a threshold value for ergot in

flour of 0.05%.

Rye Breeding

0008 For farmers, the most important objective is a stable

grain yield. In this respect, much progress has been

made during the past 20 years in hybrid rye breeding.

Hybrid rye breeding started in 1970 at the Univer-

sity of Hohenheim, Germany. At present, 17 hybrid

cultivars are registered on the official descriptive list

of plant varieties in Germany occupying almost 60%

of the total rye acreage in this country. Hybrids are

characterized not only by higher yields but also by a

higher resistance against preharvest sprouting. This is

a phenomenon specifically more pronounced in rye

than in other cereals, meaning that under wet weather

conditions, the grains already start to germinate on

the culm. Preharvest sprouting causes high harvest

losses, as the flour prepared from such preharvest

sprouted grain loses its baking performance and is

no longer suitable for breadmaking.

0009As well as breadmaking quality, progress has been

made in improving other important traits such as

kernel weight, lodging resistance, and resistance

against diseases (e.g., leaf rust). Hybrid varieties are

also licensed and released in other member countries

of the EU as well as in Poland. Hybrid rye breeding

programs are also in progress in Russia and Australia.

By crossing rye and wheat, a new cereal species,

Triticale (from Triticum aestivum and Secale cereale),

has been generated, which has replaced rye in some

production areas.

Rye and Nutrition

0010In the food culture of several European countries such

as Russia, the Baltic and Scandinavian countries,

Polish and German rye besides wheat has a long

tradition as a raw material for breadmaking and for

the production of a variety of other different prod-

ucts. Although the total production of rye has dimin-

ished in recent years, its use as a human food

increased slightly during the 1990s (Table 1). In

1990, the food consumption of rye in the world was

about 8 million tonnes, which was about 35% of the

total production.

Milling Products

0011There are many similarities between the milling of rye

and wheat. In both cases, the same type of machinery

with only slight modifications in the procedure is

used. By using different equipment and milling tech-

niques, a large variety of rye products can be obtained

(Table 2).

0012During the milling process, the first machine flours

contain after sifting mainly starch flour granules only

(i.e., they have a low flour extraction grade), while

the following flours with a higher extraction grade

contain increasing amounts of bran and other fibrous

material. The extraction rate is strongly correlated

with the ash (mineral) content. The higher the

amount of bran and fiber in the final flour, the higher

the ash content. Wholegrain rye flour has an ash

5028 RYE

content of about 2 g per 100 g, whereas the most

frequently used flours for breadmaking have ash con-

tents of about 1 g per 100 g (with an extraction rate of

about 80%).

Breadmaking

0013 Unlike wheat, the gluten protein of rye is able to form

a three-dimensional network as basic structure of the

dough rye proteins are less able to swell. This is also

valid for rye starch. However, rye contains a large

amount of nonstarch polysaccharides of high water

binding capacity, i.e., swelling capacity. They are col-

lectively called pentosans. Conditioned by sour

dough – today, dough acidification steps are often

undertaken instead – certain rye proteins are also

able to swell. The soluble proteins, starch, and the

pentosans cause the gas-holding capacity of rye flour

during dough preparation. The swelling ability can be

measured (‘swelling index’) and provides information

on the dough-rising and gas-holding capacity. Other

specific methods such as techniques using falling

numbers and amylograms are available to predict

the dough-forming suitability of rye flours. Pento-

sans, especially, are responsible for the higher

shelf-life and freshness of rye breads than with

wheat breads.

0014The most typical rye bread made from whole grains

or wholemeal is that prepared with sour dough. In

this method the main ingredients, flour, water, and

starter culture, are mixed and fermented for about

8–18 h. During the fermentation period, the lactic

acid bacteria and the sourdough yeasts grow, and as

a result of the microbial activity and enzymatic reac-

tions of the microflora, flavor precursors are synthe-

sized. The main components formed are lactic and

acetic acid. After fermentation, more flour, water, and

other ingredients are mixed into the sourdough to

make the dough. The dough is then left to rise for a

short period, after which the breads are shaped, left to

rise again, and baked.

Bread Types

0015The use of rye is mainly based on local traditional

nutritional practices. Consequently, in those coun-

tries with significant rye production and consump-

tion, a wide variety of different types of rye bread

have been established. The flavor and structure of rye

bread are quite different from those of wheat bread.

They vary depending on the flour type, ingredients,

dough preparation (type and amount of sourdough),

baking conditions, and time, as well as the size and

type of bread.

0016Traditional rye bread is the dark sour bread, popu-

lar in Finland, the Baltic states, Russia, Belarus, and

Poland. This tradition has changed somewhat on its

way to the West, for instance to Sweden, Denmark, or

Germany. In Germany, the total consumption of rye

bread is steadily decreasing, especially that of whole-

meal rye bread. Mixtures of different amounts of

wheat and rye flour are preferred.

0017In addition to the typical rye bread crispbreads,

thin crispbreads, rye rolls and buns, rolls, buns, and

breads containing wheat/rye mixtures and parbaked

rye products enrich the variety of rye products, but in

different amounts in individual countries.

0018The most typical rye bread in Finland, Denmark,

Russia, and the Baltic countries is wholegrain bread

made by the aid of sourdough. Crispbread originated

from Sweden, and nowadays is eaten throughout

the world but with a greater preference in the Nor-

dic countries. There are three different types of rye

crispbread: normal yeast-fermented, sourdough-

fermented, and cold crispbread, the third being

baked without yeast. The dough has the right texture

from a foaming process in which air is incorporated

into the cooled dough, which also leads to the

almost white color of the finished bread. Crispbread

has a long shelf-life owing to its very low water

content (5–7%).

tbl0001 Table 1 Rye product consumption in the world in some

selected countries

Area/country Rye consumption (kgper capita)

19 8 5 19 9 0 19 95

World 1.77 1.08 1.38

USA 0.2 0.4 0.3

Canada 0.5 0.5 1.6

China 0.7 0.5 0.2

USSR 8.4 3.8

Former USSR 21.3

Poland 57.0 32.5 36.4

Germany 21.4 13.8 11.5

Finland 20.4 17.7 15.8

Denmark 20.3 18.4 15.5

Sweden 14.8 11.7 12.4

Norway 8.9 9.2 7.2

From FAO Statistical Yearbooks.

tbl0002 Table 2 Milling products

Whole grain rye

Steel cut rye

Crushed rye grains

Malted and crushed rye grains

Whole-grain flour

Sifted flour (variations in ash content)

Rye bran

Rye flakes

Breakfast cereals (muesli and others)

Sourdough rye bread mix

RYE 5029

Other Rye Products

0019 Different types of rye groats and flakes are available

for baking, porridges, and breakfast cereals. These

products are generally produced from whole-grain

rye. In the Nordic countries, several new types of rye

products have been developed, among which break-

fast cereals have gained a certain popularity.

Breakfast cereals with up to 55% rye are available;

the rye of these products is flaked and precooked and

sometimes even extruded to increase the crispiness

and improve the taste. Table 3 lists the different

types of rye products.

0020 In the light of modern knowledge on the nutritional

value of rye, much effort has been made in different

rye-producing countries to invent attractive rye-based

dishes to reverse decreasing consumption.

Chemical Composition

0021 Table 4 compares the most frequent constituents in

whole grains of rye, wheat, and oats. The outer layer

of the endosperm, the aleurone layer, is rich in pro-

teins, minerals, and vitamins, especially B-vitamins

(cf. Table 5). Fat is mostly located in the germ, and

starch in the central endosperm. Rye is essentially a

good source of minerals, such as potassium, magne-

sium, zinc, manganese, and fluoride.

0022 From Tables 4 and 5, it is clear that rye wholegrain

or wholemeal is also an important source of dietary

fiber. The dietary fiber content of typical rye bread is

about three times higher than that of white wheat

bread. Even at the same flour extraction rate, rye

flour contains higher amounts of dietary fiber than

the respective wheat flour.

0023 Furthermore, rye grains contain significant

amounts of lignans: 47 mg of secoisolari ciresinol

(SECO) per 100 g and 65 mg of matairesinol (MAT)

per 100 g, so-called phytoestrogens. Also, other phen-

olic compounds are present in rye, e.g., tannin and

phytic acid. All constituents are considered bioactive

compounds.

Health Benefits

0024Nutritionists worldwide recommended increased

consumption of wholegrain products as a source of

dietary fiber. Rye is an excellent raw material for

healthy and tasty food with a high fiber content

(Table 4). In cereals, fiber is mainly located in

the outer cell layers of the kernels, especially in the

bran. Wheat and rye have similar bran contents, but

rye contains more cell wall within the endosperm and

thus has a higher fiber content.

0025There are two main types of dietary fiber: soluble

and insoluble. Water-insoluble dietary fiber includes,

tbl0003 Table 3 Other rye products

Rye porridge

Breakfast products

Pastries

Rye pasta

Rice–rye mixture

Snack products

Crispbread sandwich

Rye hamburger

‘Maemmi’ – a Finnish Easter pudding

‘Kalakukko’ – a rye-dough-covered baked dish containing

ingredients like fish, meat, and/or vegetables

tbl0004Table 4 Main constituents of whole grain meal of rye, wheat,

and oats

Component Percentage dry matter

Rye Wheat Oat groats

Protein 10–15 12–14 13–16

Fat 2–3 3 6–7

Starch 55–65 67–70 54–64

Ash 2 2 2

Total dietary fiber 15–17 10–13 11–13

Soluble fraction of dietary fiber 3–4 1–2 3–5

From Andersson R, Westerlund E, Tilly Z-C and Aman P (1993) Natural

variations in the chemical compositions of white flour. Journal of Cereal

Science 17: 183–189; Clydesdale FM (1994) Optimizing the diet with whole

grains. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 34: 453–471; Ho

rko

nen

H, Pessa E, Suortti T and Poutanen KL (1997) Distribution and some

properties of cell wall polysaccharides in rye milling fractions. Journal of

Cereal Science 26: 95–104; Lasztity R (1998) Oat grain. A wonderful

reservoir of natural nutrients and biologically active substances. Food

Review International 14: 99–119; Vollendorff NW and Marlett JA (1991)

Dietary fibre methodology and composition of oat groats, bran and hulls.

Cereal Foods World 36: 565–570; Welch R (ed.) (1995) The Oat Crop. London:

Chapman & Hall.

tbl0005Table 5 Mineral and vitamin content of rye bread and the

percentage of recommended daily intake (RDI) that 100 g (three

slices) of wholegrain rye bread provides

Nutrient Amount in 100 g

of rye bread

Percentage

of RDI (for women)

Percentage

of RDI (formen)

Vitamin E 1.0 mg

of tocopherol

14 10

Thiamin 0.18 mg 16 13

Riboflavin 0.2 mg 15 13

Niacin 1.2 mg 8 6

Folate 43 mg14 14

Iron 2.7 mg 18 27

Zinc 2.3 mg 33 26

Selenium 3.2 mg8 6

Calcium 31 mg 4 4

Potassium 400 mg 13 11

Magnesium 75 mg 27 21

Fiber 9.9 g 40 40

From Kujala T (2000) Rye: Nutrition, Health and Functionality. Finland:

Rakennuspaino Oy.

5030 RYE

among others, cellulose and lignin, whereas arabino-

xylan and b-glucan are partly insoluble, partly sol-

uble. Arabinoxylans, often subsumed under the term

pentosans, are the main fiber component of rye.

0026 In the classical understanding of dietary fiber, it is

common knowledge that a recommended intake of

25–35 g of fiber per day reduces the risk of over-

weight and constipation. Dietary fiber increases

the fecal volume and reduces the intestinal transit

time.

0027 Research results in recent years have provided good

evidence that dietary fiber, especially soluble fiber,

contributes to a number of health benefits, such as

a reduced risk of heart disease, decreased serum

cholesterol level, reduced risk of elevated blood

glucose levels and diabetes, strengthening of the

immune system, and protection against different

kinds of cancer (e.g., colorectal cancer, breast

cancer, etc.).

0028 Besides dietary fiber, rye grain contains relatively

high concentrations of lignans, which are converted

to weakly estrogenic mammalian lignans in the colon.

Such phytoestrogens affect sex hormone metabolism

and function by influencing certain sex hormone

metabolizing enzymes at the cellular level. In add-

ition, they have a great number of other interesting

biological activities, possibly making them anti-

carcinogenic compounds.

Animal Feed and Alcohol Production

0029 Depending on the total rye production and consump-

tion of rye as food in an individual country, varying

amounts of rye between 30 and 80% are used for

animal feed. There are, however, restrictions on the

use of rye in animal feed.

0030 Those components with beneficial effects on

human health, the pentosans, create some problems

in the digestion of monogastric animals such as pigs

and poultry–young animals are much more affected

than older animals, with symptoms of maldigestion,

reduced growth, and weight increase. Therefore,

much effort has been made to improve rye-based

feed by adding specific enzymes and to find uses for

feed to alluviate the apparent overproduction of rye

in the EU and the rest of the world. One such use is the

use of rye and rye products for feeding fish and crust-

aceans in specialized farms in Asia and elsewhere.

0031There is also a tradition of producing alcohol from

rye. Famous brand names of such spirits exist in

nearly all of the rye-growing countries, but the total

amount of rye used for these is comparably small.

See also: Alcohol: Properties and Determination; Bread:

Breadmaking Processes; Cereals: Contribution to the

Diet; Dietary Importance; Milling: Characteristics of

Milled Products

Further Reading

Andersson R, Westerlund E, Tilly A-C and Aman P (1993)

Natural variations in the chemical compositions of white

flour. Journal of Cereal Science 17: 183–189.

Bushuk W (2001) Rye: Production, Chemistry and Tech-

nology, 2nd edn. St. Paul, MN: AACC.

Clydesdale FM (1994) Optimizing the diet with whole

grains. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

34: 453–471.

FAO (2001) Production Yearbook, vol. 53, 1999. Rome:

Food and Agriculture Organization.

rko

nen H, Pessa E, Suortti T and Poutanen KL (1997)

Distribution and some properties of cell wall poly-

saccharides in rye milling fractions. Journal of Cereal

Science 26: 95–104.

Kujala T (2000) Rye: Nutrition, Health and Functionality.

Finland: Rakennuspaino Oy.

Lasztity R (1998) Oat grain. A wonderful reservoir of

natural nutrients and biologically active substances.

Food Review International 14: 99–119.

Miedaner T (1997) Roggen: Vom Unkraut zur Volksnah-

rung. Frankfurt: DLG-Verlag.

Nyman M, Siljestro

m M, Pedersen B et al. (1984) Dietary

fibre content and composition in six cereals at different

extraction rates. Cereal Chemistry 61: 14–19.

Pyler EJ (1998) Baking Science and Technology, 3rd edn.

Merriam, IN: Sosland.

Stear CA (1990) Handbook of Breadmaking Technology.

Barking, UK: Elsevier Science.

Vollendorff NW and Marlett JA (1991) Dietary fibre

methodology and composition of oat groats, bran and

hulls. Cereal Foods World 36: 565–570.

Weipert D (1997) Processing performance of rye as com-

pared to wheat. Cereal Foods World 42: 706–712.

Welch R (ed.) (1995) The Oat Crop. London: Chapman &

Hall.

RYE 5031

SACCHARIN

J F Lawrence, Health and Welfare Canada, Ontario,

Canada

Introduction

0001 Saccharin has been in use as an artificial sweetener for

about 100 years. It was discovered accidentally by

researchers at the Johns Hopkins University in 1879

during studies on the oxidation of o-toluene sulphon-

amide. Its structure is shown in Figure 1. It is not

metabolized but is excreted unchanged by the

human body and thus contributes no calories to the

diet. The safety of the substance has been the subject

of debate for many years, and the controversy con-

tinues with arguments both for and against its use as

an artificial sweetener.

Sweetness

0002 Saccharin is about 300–500 times as sweet as su-

crose, depending upon its concentration and the type

of food medium in which it is used. Compared with

sucrose, it has a slow onset of sweetness that in-

creases to a maximum and then persists. The major

drawback of saccharin is its bitter metallic after-

taste, which is particularly evident at higher concen-

trations. Because of this, efforts have been made to

mask the aftertaste by adding substances such as

cream of tartar, lemon flavor, pectin, ribonucleo-

tides, glycine, gentian root, and artificial sweeteners

such as aspartame or cyclamate. Combinations of

saccharin with aspartame or cyclamate have proved

to be very successful for many applications. In these

cases, it has been found that saccharin exerts a

substantial synergistic effect on the sweetness of

either aspartame or cyclamate. For example, a mix-

ture of 20 mg of aspartame and 4 mg of saccharin is

equal in sweetness to either 45 mg of aspartame or

35 mg of saccharin if used alone in a cup of coffee.

Not only does saccharin exhibit a synergistic effect

with aspartame, but it apparently improves the sta-

bility of the latter in acidic soft drinks, enabling

extended storage of such products. Saccharin/cycla-

mate mixtures were widely accepted in the USA

until the ban on cyclamate in 1969. At present,

saccharin/aspartame concentrations are commonly

used in the USA in diet soft drinks. In some Euro-

pean countries, saccharin/cyclamate combinations

are still permitted.

Production, Physical, and Chemical

Properties

0003Commercial production of saccharin has been carried

out by two different chemical processes. The Remsen–

Fahlberg method involves reaction of toluene with

chlorosulfonic acid to produce o- and p-toluene sul-

fonyl chlorides. The o-isomer is separated and then

treated with ammonia to form o-toluene sulfona-

mide. The last compound is oxidized to o-sulfamoyl

benzoic acid, which, upon heating, cyclizes to

saccharin.

0004The Maumee process involves diazotization of

methyl anthranylate with sodium nitrite in the pres-

ence of hydrochloric acid to form 2-carbomethoxy-

benzenesulfonyl chloride, which is converted to

saccharin after amidation and acidification. The cal-

cium or sodium salts of saccharin are produced by

reaction of the respective hydroxides with saccharin.

0005Saccharin and its calcium or sodium salts are

white crystalline powders with intensely sweet

tastes. A dilute aqueous solution of saccharin is

about 500 times sweeter than a solution with an

equal concentration of sucrose, whereas the salts are

about 300 times sweeter than a solution containing

an equivalent weight of sucrose. The melting point of

saccharin is 228.8–229.7



C, whereas the salts de-

compose above 300



C. The excellent stability of sac-

charin and its salts under normal food-processing

makes it ideally suited technically as a noncaloric

sweetener in many different products. It is unaffected,

for example, by the heat processing required for

jams, jellies, and canned fruits. The salts of saccharin

are much more water soluble than saccharin (1 g of

salts per 1.5 ml of water versus 1 g of saccharin

per 290 ml of water). Aqueous solutions of sac charin

are slightly acidic, whereas the calcium and sodium

salts are neutral or slightly basic. They are very stable

in aqueous solution over a wide pH range, although

below pH 2.5 at elevated temperatures saccharin has a

tendency to hydrolyze slowly to o-sulfamoyl benzoic

acid and o-sulfobenzoic acid.

Food Uses

0006 Because of its stability, saccharin (usually as its cal-

cium or sodium salt) has been used in a wide variety

of food products. These include carbonated and

noncarbonated soft drink beverages, table-top sweet-

eners, dry beverage bases, canned fruits, gelatin des-

serts, cooked and instant puddings, salad dressings,

jams, jellies, preserves, chewing gum, and baked

goods. Typical amounts of sodium saccharin used in

food products are, for example, 2.7 mg per ml of

table-top sweetner, 0.32 mg per ml of carbonated

soft drinks, 0.19 mg per ml of noncarbonated soft

drinks, 0.9 mg per ml of jams and jellies and 2.2 mg

per stick of chewing gum.

0007 Nonfood uses of saccharin include applications

in cosmetics such as toothpastes, mouthwashes, and

lipstick, pharmaceuticals, such as coatings on pills,

cattle feed, electroplating, and, in Japan, as an inter-

mediate in the production of the rice blast fungicide,

probenazole.

0008 World commercial production of saccharin in 1900

was estimated to be about 190 tonnes. This increased

more or less steadily up to the late 1970s, when world

annual production reached approximately 5000

tonnes.

Metabolism and Safety

0009 Many feeding studies with a variety of animal species

have shown that saccharin is excreted unchanged. In

rats, saccharin is excreted rapidly. However, there is

some accumulation in the bladder, but the sweetener

is completly cleared in 3 days after removal of sac-

charin from the diet. No metabolites have ever been

detected. Studies have shown that the compound is

not metabolized by liver microsomal enzymes, it is

not genotoxic, and it does not bind to DNA after oral

administration. The metabolic profiles of saccharin

fed to dogs, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and hamsters are

similar.

0010The greatest concern relating to metabolic effects

of saccharin has been the uncertainty about its car-

cinogenicity to humans. Several early carcinogenicity

studies in rats that included in utero exposure had

indicated that feeding of saccharin may lead to blad-

der tumors. However, subsequent studies seem to

indicate that it is not saccharin itself that causes

the effects, but some other still unclear mechanism

that operates in a dose-dependent fashion. Also,

recent (1998) studies in monkeys have shown that

saccharin is without carcinogenic effect on the

primate urinary tract. A number of extensive epi-

demiological studies in humans have shown no asso-

ciation between saccharin consumption and urinary

bladder cancer.

Regulatory Status

0011In 1972, because of the uncertainty of the safety of

saccharin, the US Food and Drug Administration

delisted saccharin and in 1977 proposed to ban its

use in foods and beverages. However, public protest

led congress to impose a moratorium on the ban,

which has been extended up to the present. In

Canada, saccharin was banned in 1978 for use in

foods. However, it is permitted to be sold in phar-

macies as a table-top sweetener. It is currently

under review for other applications. In most other

countries throughout the world, saccharin is per-

mitted, although its use is restricted to varying

degrees.

Analysis

0012A number of methods for the determination of

saccharin in foods and pharmaceutical preparations

have been reported. These include gas chromatog-

raphy with flame ionization or electron capture

detection, thin-layer chromatography, ultraviolet

absorption spectrophotometry, and high-perform-

ance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultravio-

let absorbance detection. The last technique is

the most commonly used method at present, espe-

cially for the determination of saccharin in foods

and beverages. For liquid samples, minimal sample

preparation is required. The samples are filtered

and perhaps diluted before being analyzed directly

by HPLC. Solid foods are usually mixed with water,

which extracts the saccharin. An aliquot of the

aqueous extract is then directly analyzed by

−

fig0001 Figure 1 Structure of saccharin (sodium salt). Reproduced

from Saccharin, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology

and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds),

1993, Academic Press.

5034 SACCHARIN

HPLC. The sensitivity of the technique is more than

adequate for the concentrations of saccharin

normally encountered in foods. Saccharin has

been incorporated into a multisweetener HPLC

method.

See also: Aspartame; Chromatography: High-

performance Liquid Chromatography; Sucrose:

Properties and Determination; Dietary Importance