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The final, cataclysmic fall of Constantinople came in 1453 through Mehmet II.

Eventually the city was taken and the last emperor killed. The Ottoman advance looked

unstoppable, progressing across the Mediterranean and overland to central Europe but

was eventually halted at Malta and Vienna.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ABYDOS (ABYDUS), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 13 APRIL 989

Victory for Basil II over Bardas Phokas. Bardas Phokas, a pretender to the throne, was

near Abydos in Anatolia, where he assembled support. He besieged Abydos and Basil

came to its relief. The two armies met on a plain east of the city. Basil charged and

scattered the enemy. Bardas rode by the emperor, intending to challenge him to personal

combat, but fell from his horse apparently from a sudden stroke. His army fled and was

cut to pieces.

ADRIANOPLE, BATTLE OF, 9 AUGUST 378

Victory for the Visigoths over the Romans. In 376 Goths, driven on by the Huns,

crossed the Danube. Some were permitted into the empire in return for military service,

ut were treated badly, charged highly for supplies, some murdered at Marcianople and

taking to arms. They failed to take Adrianople (Edirne in European Turkey). At The

Willows (Ad Silices), they were attacked by Romans with no clear result. The survivors

were joined by Alans and Huns crossing the Danube. The main force under Fritigern built

a camp near Adrianople, in Thrace, west of Constantinople. The eastern emperor Valens,

underestimating the size of the enemy, attacked their camp. Goth and Alan foragers,

riding back to camp, made a surprise flank attack—‘like a thunderbolt’. The Romans

were massacred. Valens was wounded by an arrow and died when the building where he

was taken was fired. The barbarians besieged Adrianople. The defenders replied with

stones from a throwing engine and the attackers withdrew. Nevertheless, the battle

created a shock through the empire and barbarians dominated the Balkans.

ARCADIOPOLIS (LÜLEBURGAZ), SIEGE OF, 823, BATTLE OF, 970

Capital of the Theme of Thrace, near Adrianople, its position made it a focus for

conflict. In 823 the rebel Thomas the Slav took it and was besieged by the Byzantine

emperor Michael II. Thomas expelled non-combatants and survived the summer. By

October the garrison was eating dead horses; some climbed the wall to surrender.

Thomas’ men yielded and handed him over. Michael ordered Thomas to have his hands

and feet cut off and be impaled on a stake. In the 970 battle Sviatoslav and the Russians

invaded Thrace against the Byzantines and were defeated by Bardas Sclerus. The

Byzantines pursued under John Tzimisces and won a second victory at Dorostalon in 971.

CHERNOMEN (MARITZA), BATTLE OF, 26 SEPTEMBER 1371

Victory for Murad I in the first pitched battle for the Turks in Europe. He defeated the

Serbians under King Vukashin by the

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Maritza west of Adrianople. The Serbs had Bulgar

allies. The Byzantine emperor John V was in the west seeking aid. The Turkish force was

smaller but surprised the Serbs, who broke and fled, the end of a powerful medieval

Serbia and of the independent Serbian principality of Serres. Macedonia fell to the Turks

while Byzantium and Bulgaria became Murad’s clients. Constantinople was surrounded

by Turkish territory.

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CONSTANTINOPLE, SIEGES OF, 1203–4, 1397–1402, 1422, 1453

The capital of the Byzantine Empire saw numerous sieges throughout the medieval

eriod, reflecting its political, economic and geographical importance. Books have been

written on 1453 alone. One could easily double the number of sieges covered here,

including earlier attempts by Persians and Avars 626, Saracens 674, 717–18,

Scandinavian-Russians 860, 907, 941—and many others. The sieges listed here mark the

decline and fall of Byzantium. 1203–4 was the Latin siege in the Fourth Crusade, the first

time Constantinople fell to an outside force. The crusaders arrived in June 1203. The

ancient and blind Venetian Doge Enrico Dandolo was with them. On 17 July, following a

vigorous assault on the walls, Alexius III fled and Isaac II was restored, with Alexius IV

as co-emperor. In January 1204 the citizens proclaimed Nicholas Canabus, and Isaac II

was killed. In February Alexius IV was killed and Nicholas imprisoned. Murzurphlus was

roclaimed as Alexius V. On 12 April the crusaders stormed the city. Alexius fled and

was later caught and killed. The Latins sacked the city. On 16 May they proclaimed

Baldwin of Flanders as Baldwin I, the beginning of the Latin Empire that lasted until

1261. From 1397 the Ottoman Sultan Bayezit I made several abortive attempts to besiege

Constantinople, being diverted by other problems. He built the fort of Anadolu Hisar on

the opposite side of the Bosphorus. In 1399 Manuel II went west seeking aid. Byzantium

was aided by outside pressure on the Turks through Tamberlane. In spring 1402 Bayezit

abandoned the siege and went east to be defeated, captured and later killed by

Tamberlane. In 1422 Sultan Murad II besieged an isolated Constantinople from 8 June.

He sent siege engines against the land walls. His attempt to storm the city failed and he

abandoned the siege in August to deal with rebellion by his brother Mustafa. The 1453

siege was a significant event in world history though its outcome was easy to forecast.

Sultan Mehmet II began the siege on 7 April, aided by the renegade Hungarian Urban

who produced large cannons for him. A small Venetian fleet broke through to offer

temporary relief. Mehmet entered the Golden Horn by taking ships overland on rollers.

On 29 May the Ottomans broke in, some over the wall, others through a postern gate.

Constantine XI was killed. The Turks sacked the city, which became their capital. It was

the end of the long history of the Byzantine Empire, itself a continuation of the ancient

Roman Empire, and marked the rise of Islam and decline of Christianity in eastern

Europe. It has been seen as marking the end of the medieval world.

DEMETRIAS, NAVAL BATTLE OF, 1275

Generally seen as a sea battle though one source says it was fought on land. The Latins

in Greece who were allied to John the Bastard of Thessaly fought against a Byzantine

fleet in the Gulf of Volos. The Latin assault was successful until Greek reinforcements

under Despot John the brother of Michael VIII arrived. The Latins were beaten—

erhaps

on land as well as at sea.

GALLIPOLI, BATTLE OF, 447

Hun victory over the eastern Romans. Attila had recently become khan. His victories

over the Eastern Empire culminated in Gallipoli. He then raided into the Balkans. It was a

prelude to

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invasion of the west, which came as a relief to the Byzantines, probably

encouraged by them.

KALAMATA, BATTLE OF, JULY 1415

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Byzantine emperor Manuel II planned to rebuild the wall of the Hexamilion across the

Isthmus of Corinth as a defence against the Ottomans. The tax for it provoked rebellion

but at Kalamata he defeated the rebels.

KLOKOTNITSA, BATTLE OF, APRIL 1230

Victory of John Asen II of Bulgaria over Theodore Dukas despot of Epirus on the

Maritza in Thrace, near Adrianople. Theodore built up Thessalonika and aimed at

recovering Constantinople from the Latins. He wished to wipe out Bulgar power and

invaded John Asen’s lands. He was captured and his empire broke up. Asen besieged

Constantinople but failed to take it. Theodore was released when Asen married his

daughter. In his lifetime Asen dominated the Balkans, claiming all the land between

Adrianople and Durazzo—‘Greek, Albanian and Serbian’. The major effect of the battle

was to eliminate Epirus as a contender for rule in Byzantium, leaving Nicaea as the chie

challenger.

KOSEDAG, BATTLE OF, 26 JUNE 1243

Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks of Rum under Kaikosru II, marking the decline

of the Seljuk threat to Byzantium though Byzantines and Frankish mercenaries fought

alongside the Seljuks. The Mongols took over Anatolia. The Sultan of Rum and the

Emperor of Trebizond agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols. Mongol interest moved

elsewhere but the Seljuks remained in subjection.

KOSOVO, BATTLES OF, 15 JUNE 1389, 17–18 OCTOBER 1448

In 1389 Sultan Murad I defeated an alliance of Serbs, Bulgars, Bosnians, Wallachians

and Albanians under Tsar Lazar of Serbia. The site is in southern Serbia at ‘the Field o

the Blackbirds’. The Slav army was larger. Serbia became subject to the Ottomans. The

Slavs began well but Vuk Brankovic deserted. Murad was killed by a captured Serb. His

son Bayezit, who was there, succeeded. Lazar was captured and executed in the tent

where Murad had been stabbed. The battle became a subject for heroic literature

including the Serbian

Kossovo Cycle

. It broke major opposition to the Turks in the

Balkans. In 1448 Murad II defeated the crusade under John Hunyadi in a two-day battle

(some accounts make it three or four days). Hunyadi’s force included western crusaders

and eastern Christian allies. Hunyadi did not wait for the Albanians to arrive. Dan o

Wallachia and George Brankovic of Serbia deserted Hunyadi. German and Bohemian

handgunners fought for Hunyadi. The Turkish Janissaries relied chiefly on bows but

afterwards took more to handguns. Both sides used palisades of stakes to protect their

infantry. Half the Hungarian army was killed. Hunyadi escaped to take revenge on

George by invading Serbia in 1449. Constantinople was isolated and vulnerable.

KULIKOVO, BATTLE OF, 8 SEPTEMBER 1380

Victory by Dmitri Donskoi grand duke of Moscow over Mamai the Mongol and the

Golden Horde with Lithuanian allies. The site was on the upper Don. Mamai sought to

recover losses to Russian rebels. The Lithuanians arrived late and the Russians then

retreated. It nevertheless confirmed the strength of Moscow.

KUSTENDIL (VELBUŽD), BATTLE OF, 28 JULY 1330

Victory of Stephen Dečanski of Serbia over the Bulgars. The Bulgars expected aid

from their Byzantine allies that did not materialise. The Serbs attacked while some

Bulgars were foraging. Cavalry won the battle. Serbia then controlled the Varda valley

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and Stephen’s position was confirmed.

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LARISSA, SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1083

Byzantine victory over the Normans of Sicily under Bohemond son of Robert

Guiscard. Guiscard returned to Italy, leaving Bohemond in command. Bohemond won

two victories and besieged Larissa. The Byzantine emperor Alexius I came to its relief.

He ordered a feigned flight by some troops while he attacked the Norman camp.

Bohemond abandoned the siege and retired to Kastoria before returning to Italy.

MOUNT LEVUNIUM (LEVUNION), BATTLE OF, 29 APRIL 1091

Byzantine victory for Alexius I with Kuman allies against the Pechenegs. The site was

the foot of a hill near the mouth of the Maritza. Anna Comnena described her father’s

attle. The evening before, soldiers lit torches and fixed them to their spears. A massacre

followed, when many Pecheneg camp followers were killed or enslaved. The Pecheneg

threat to Byzantium was erased.

MANZIKERT (MALAZGIRT), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 19 AUGUST 1071

Decisive victory of the Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan over the Byzantine emperor

Romanus IV. The date is disputed but 19 August generally accepted. The site was north

of Lake Van in Armenia, now Turkey. Romanus divided his forces, sending some to

forage while he besieged Manzikert. Alp Arslan came to its relief. He offered peace terms

ut Romanus refused. Romanus led the first line and his nephew Andronicus Dukas the

second. The Turks retreated. At night Romanus retreated but this caused confusion. The

Turks attacked and Andronicus, with the second line, abandoned the field and fled. The

first line was killed or captured. Romanus was captured but freed on agreeing ransom and

tribute. The Seljuks conquered Armenia and most of Asia Minor, overrunning Syria.

Later that year Romanus was deposed. Byzantium never entirely recovered from the

disaster.

MYRIOCEPHALUM (MYRIOKEPHALON), BATTLE OF, 17 SEPTEMBER 1176

Defeat of Byzantine emperor Manuel I by the Seljuks under Kilij Arslan II. The site

was near the ruined fort of Myriocephalum (modern Denizli in Turkey) in highlands near

the Tzibritze pass. Manuel invaded, intending to gain lands and attack the Sultan’s capital

of Iconium (Konya). He was ambushed during a sandstorm when approaching the pass,

which he had failed to scout properly. The Byzantines were too dispersed and were

surrounded. With Manuel were Hungarian allies and his brother-in-law Baldwin o

Antioch. Baldwin charged but was killed. The Byzantines suffered heavy losses. Kilij

Arslan offered terms and the Byzantines were allowed to withdraw. Manuel recovered to

some extent through the efforts of his general John Vatatzes.

NIKA REVOLT, 532

Rising against the Byzantine emperor Justinian in Constantinople, caused by discontent

at taxation. Justinian dealt harshly with disorder by the Blue and Green circus factions,

supporters of the chariot races. A riot began in the Hippodrome on 10 January. On 13

January large-scale fighting followed. The Blues and Greens burst from the Hippodrome

against the imperial palace, shouting ‘Nika’ (victory)—the cry used at the races.

Hypatius, nephew of the former emperor Anastasius, was proclaimed emperor on 18

January. Justinian wanted to flee but his wife Theodora persuaded him to stay. The

general Belisarius, recalled after defeat by the Persians, used trained troops against the

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rioters. Thousands were killed. Hypatius was captured and executed. The riots left the

Haghia Sophia in ruins.

PELAGONIA (BITOLJ/MONASTIR), BATTLE OF, OCTOBER 1259

Between the fragmented Byzantine states during the period of Latin control in

Constantinople. The Greeks of Nicaea under John Palaeologus, brother of

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Michael VIII,

defeated those of Epirus under Michael II Dukas. Michael of Epirus allied with Manfred

of Sicily and William II Villehardouin prince of Achaia. John advanced from the south.

Michael deserted his allies and fled to Cephalonia. The remaining troops were decimated

by John’s Cuman archers and many knights surrendered. The allies who continued to

resist were cut down. William was captured. John sent a force against Epirus and took

Arta. It helped the recovery of Constantinople by Michael VIII.

PELEKANOS (PELEKANON/MALTEPE/ MANYAS), BATTLE OF, 10–11 JUNE

1329

Defeat of Byzantine emperor Andronicus III by Sultan Orhan during the Ottoman

advance. The Turks aimed at Nicaea and Andronicus intervened. He approached the

Turkish camp but failed to break in. Next day Andronicus’ retreat turned into a rout and

his army was destroyed. He was wounded but escaped to Constantinople. Two years later

Nicaea was taken and the Turks approached Constantinople.

PHOENICUS (FINIKE), NAVAL BATTLE OF, 655

Victory of Muawiyah over the Byzantines under Constans. Constans took a fleet to

lock the Turks off the Lycian coast. The Byzantine fleet was scattered. Constans

escaped by changing clothes with one of his men, who was later killed.

POIMANENON, BATTLES OF, 6 DECEMBER 1204, 1224

1204 was a victory for the Latin Constantinople under Baldwin I over Theodore I

Laskaris of Nicaea, son-in-law of Alexius III. After the Latin conquest of Constantinople,

Theodore established himself in Asia Minor, in a state claiming to be the real Byzantine

Empire. In attempting to recover the city he fought this battle 40 miles south of the

Marmara. A group of western knights, for Baldwin, garrisoned Panormos, attempting to

take the surrounding land. Theodore came to prevent them. The Latin force numbered

only 140 knights plus some mounted sergeants. The outcome damped the hopes o

Theodore. In the 1224 battle the Nicaean emperor John Vatatzes defeated the Latins and

took most Byzantine territory in Asia Minor.

ROVINE, BATTLE OF, 17 MAY 1395

Victory by the Hungarians and Wallachians over the Ottomans under Sultan Bayezit.

The Christian army was led by Sigismund of Hungary and Mircea of Wallachia. It drew

Bayezit away from Constantinople. Some Serbian princes and Greeks fought as Turkish

vassals. The victory was not decisive and Mircea still recognised Turkish overlordship.

SAMOSATA (SAMSAT), BATTLE OF, 873

Victory for the Byzantine emperor Basil I against the Saracens in his advance through

Asia Minor. Samosata was in the Euphrates valley. Basil extended Byzantine power to

the Euphrates, capturing Samosata.

SPETSAI (SETTEPOZZI), NAVAL BATTLE OF, 1263

The Venetians defeated a Genoese and Byzantine fleet. Michael VIII allied with Genoa

to reduce Venetian power in Constantinople. The Genoese sailed south towards

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Monemvasia. Off the island of Spetsai they met a smaller Venetian fleet. The allies

refused battle but were attacked and broken up, losing a thousand men and their admiral.

STILO, NAVAL BATTLE OF, 982

Holy Roman Emperor Otto II’s Italian expedition was halted by an alliance o

Byzantines and Saracens. Otto failed to take Crotona and was defeated at Basientello in

Apulia while his fleet was beaten at Stilo. Otto escaped by concealing his identity. He

swam to a passing ship and then to shore. Otto died the following year in Rome.

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STRUMA (KLEIDION/CIMBALONGUS), BATTLE OF, 29 JULY 1014

Victory by Basil II over the Bulgars under Tsar Samuel at the pass of Kleidion, leading

from Serres to the Struma valley. Basil’s entry was blocked by palisades. A force under

ikephorus Xiphias crossed the hills to attack the Bulgars from the rear while Basil

stormed the palisades. The Bulgars were routed and Basil completed his conquest o

Bulgaria. Samuel escaped, a broken man, dying soon after. Basil ordered the captives

blinded—one in a hundred left with one eye to lead the others home.

THESSALONIKA (SALONIKA), SIEGES OF, 1185, 1224, 1430

Byzantine Thessalonika, a major Aegean port, was sacked by William II of Sicily in

1185. The Norman fleet was under Tancred of Lecce, and the army under his cousin

Richard of Acerra. They sailed from Messina in June. Durazzo surrendered. In August

the Normans arrived at Thessalonika to besiege the city. The garrison ran short o

weapons and water. German mercenaries within were bribed to admit the attackers on 24

August. The Normans massacred the inhabitants and devastated the city. In 1224, during

Latin rule in Constantinople, Thessalonika was taken from its Latin ruler, William de

Montferrat, by Theodore Dukas, Greek Despot of Epirus. Theodore proclaimed himsel

Byzantine emperor. In 1246 the rival ruler of Nicaea, John Vatatzes, claimed

Thessalonika. 1224 was the end of the Latin principality and significant in the decline o

Latin rule. In 1430 Thessalonika fell to the Turks, having changed hands several times

efore being sold by Manuel II to Venice in 1423. Seven years later it was taken by

Sultan Murad II, whose arrival on 26 March was met by a hail of arrows. On 29 March

the Ottomans stormed the city. The citizens were slaughtered or enslaved, a major step in

the fall of Byzantium.

TRAJAN’S GATE (SUCCI PASS), BATTLE OF, 17 AUGUST 986

Defeat of Basil II by the Bulgars. Basil’s expedition sought revenge for the Bulgar

massacre at Larissa. He followed the Maritza and headed for the pass at Trajan’s Gate.

He tried to take Serdica but gave up. On his return he was ambushed at the pass. Many

were killed though Basil escaped. The defeat spurred Basil to vengeance. He defeated the

Bulgars, gaining the name of Bulgar-Slayer.

TRICAMARUM, BATTLE OF, 15 DECEMBER 533

Final victory for the Byzantines under Belisarius against the Vandals under Gelimer in

orth Africa. The site was 20 miles west of Carthage. Belisarius undertook the

reconquest of Roman Africa for Justinian I. The Vandals could not be provoked into

attacking over a stream. In a largely cavalry conflict, the Byzantines made three charges.

The Byzantine centre crossed first and when the Vandals engaged the wings, they crossed

to attack from either flank. The Vandals broke. Gelimer’s brother Gzazo was killed and

Gelimer fled. Hippo was taken and Vandal Africa collapsed. Gelimer surrendered in 534

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and was taken to Constantinople for Belisarius’ triumph.

VERSINICIA (VERSINIKIS), BATTLE OF, 22 JUNE 813

Victory by the Bulgars under Tsar Krum against Michael I, 20 miles north o

Adrianople. The Byzantine left attacked with initial success. The Anatolians on the

Byzantine right, under Leo the Armenian, deserted. The Bulgars surrounded the

remaining troops to win a resounding victory. Krum captured Adrianople. Leo took the

throne as Leo V.

YARMUK, BATTLE OF, AUGUST 636

Victory for Islam under Khalid ibn al-Walid against Theodore, brother of the emperor,

Heraclius. The Arab advance was halted by the arrival of a Byzantine army in 636.

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Khalid retreated to the Yarmuk. He beat off an attack by Theodore’s Persian allies.

Theodore’s army mutinied and Khalid attacked. Fighting continued over several days.

The Byzantine cavalry was isolated and fled. The Byzantines ran out of arrows and were

eaten. Many were driven to death over the cliffs rising from the river. Khalid took Syria

and Damascus.

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St Louis at Damietta

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The Crusades, 1095–1500

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I:

Adhémar of Le Puy, al-Ashraf, al-Kamil, Amalric I, Baldwin I, Baldwin II,

Baldwin III, Baldwin IV, Balian II of Ibelin, Baybars, Bohemond of Taranto, Boniface o

Montferrat, Edward I, Geoffrey I Villehardouin, Godfrey de Bouillon, Guy of Lusignan,

Humphrey of Toron, Kerbogha, Kilij Arslan, Louis VII, Malik Shah, de Montfort (Simon

the Elder), Nevsky (Alexander), Nur ed-Din, Peter the Hermit, Philip Augustus,

Qalawun, Qtuz, Rainald of Châtillon, Raymond of Poitiers Prince of Antioch, Raymond

of St Gilles IV Count of Toulouse and I of Tripoli, Raymond VI Count of Toulouse,

Raymond VII Count of Toulouse, Richard I, Ridwan, Saladin, Shirkuh, Tancred, Walter

the Penniless, Yaghi-Siyan, Zangi.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Acre 1189–91, 1291, Antioch 1097–8, 1268, Arsuf 1191, Ascalon 1099, Ayn Jalut 1260,

Civetot 1096, Damascus 1148, Damietta 1218–19, 1249–50, Dorylaeum 1097, 1147

Edessa 1098, 1144, Field of Blood 1119, Harbiya 1244, Hattin 1187, Homs 1281, 1299,

Jerusalem 1099, 1187, 1244, Krak des Chevaliers 1271, Ma’arrat al-Numan 1098,

Mansurah 1250, Montgisard 1177, Montségur 1243–4, Nicaea 1097, Nicopolis 1396,

Ramleh 1101, 1102, 1105, Tiberias 1187, Toulouse 1211, 1217–18, Tunis 1270, Tyre

1111–12, 1124, Varna 1444.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

Crusading history has expanded in time and space. Once it included only certain

numbered expeditions to the Holy Land, ending with the fall of Acre in 1291. Now it

involves the study of various additional expeditions to the Middle East, crusades within

Europe for example against pagans in the north or heretics in France, and is

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carried on

into the early modern world and later, for example to the fall of Malta. Details of military

events appear in the relevant geographical region, thus the northern crusades appear in

Section 6, the

Reconquista

in Section 11 and so on. Here the main emphasis is on

crusades to the Holy Land.

The main drive of the crusading movement was towards the Middle East, against

Islamic control of Christian Holy Places, in particular of Jerusalem. It is generally agreed

that the Crusades began with Pope Urban II’s appeal at Clermont-Ferrand in 1095,

followed by expeditions to the Middle East from 1096. Urban’s interest was inspired by

Byzantine appeals for aid against the Turks. Before this the pilgrimage movement from

the west to the Holy Places had been growing. It is arguable that the war against Islam in

Spain was an early example of crusading.

Urban’s appeal led to the first military effort in the Middle East, the so-called ‘People’s

Crusade’. It involved several groups making their own way to the Holy Land under Peter

the Hermit, Walter the Penniless (a knight), Gottschalk, Folkmar and Count Emich o

Leiningen. Massacred Jews in Europe were the first victims of the crusaders under Count

Emich. A thousand Jews were killed in Mainz, 800 in Worms. The People’s Crusade was

inspired by Peter the Hermit. It attracted many non-knightly individuals, mostly lacking

military training. These poorly organised treks ended in disaster at points along the way.

Hungary proved difficult to pass through. The Byzantine emperor, Alexius I, moved

crusaders on as quickly as possible. Those who got to the Middle East were wiped out at

Xerigordon and Civetot. Older historians preferred to ignore this effort and called the

subsequent knightly expedition the First Crusade.

The First Crusade was led by nobles rather than kings. The main crusade assembled at

Le Puy in the Auvergne. Five main groups set out, the first under Godfrey de Bouillon

and his brother Baldwin. A French group went under Hugh count of Vermandois, son o

Henry I of France. The Counts of Blois and Flanders and Robert Curthose duke o

ormandy marched to Italy, sailing from there. A fourth group was of southern Normans

from Italy under Bohemond and his nephew Tancred. Finally the oldest leader, Raymond

count of Toulouse accompanied the appointed church leader, Adhémar bishop of Le Puy.

Various routes across Europe were taken, heading for Constantinople—the crossing point

to Asia Minor. The First Crusaders faced fewer problems than the People’s Crusade since

they possessed greater military strength. Alexius took oaths of allegiance from the leaders

and helped them on their way, breathing a sigh of relief as they went.

They passed Civetot, site of the disaster for the People’s Crusade. Groups chose their

own route. They took Nicaea and won at Dorylaeum in 1097. Baldwin went to Edessa,

which he took over from its Armenian Christian ruler Thoros. The other crusaders

esieged and captured Antioch in 1098, only to be besieged within it by Kerbogha o

Mosul. The latter withdrew and the crusaders proceeded to take Acre, reaching Jerusalem

in 1099, recently taken from the Seljuks by the Egyptians. Jerusalem fell to the crusaders

and a massacre followed.

A new Christian state was established, the kingdom of Jerusalem. Godfrey de Bouillon

was called advocate of the Holy Sepulchre, in effect the first King of Jerusalem. Linked

rincipalities were established under Baldwin count of Edessa, Bohemond prince o

Antioch, and Raymond count of Tripoli. Other baronies developed under the counts o

Jaffa and Ascalon, the Prince of Galilee and the lords of Sidon, Caesarea,

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Beisan and

Kerak. Castles were built for defence, including Beaufort, Safed, Toron, Montréal, Ibelin

and Krak. New immigrants came but the population remained mixed—GreGreek,

Armenian, Saracen and Syrian. The courts used ten languages.

The success of the First Crusade depended on the weakness of Islamic states of the

region—soon to change with the rise of Zangi emir of Mosul. In 1144 the Muslims took

Edessa, provoking the Second Crusade, preached by St Bernard. This time kings

responded—Louis VII of France, Conrad in (HRE), and Roger II of Sicily. The crusade

was a disaster. Roger went his own way, attacking Corfu and the Greek mainland. Louis

faced marital problems with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Conrad went ahead and was defeated

at Dorylaeum in 1147. Together they attacked Damascus, under a friendly Islamic ruler,

and failed to take it. The crusade broke up. At most it had temporarily distracted Islamic

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