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cavalry made a feigned flight to draw the enemy on before turning upon them. The

Normans ‘who seemed to be fleeing, turned round and began violently to cut down the

French’. The Conqueror used the tactic at Hastings. Enguerrand II count of Ponthieu,

brother-in-law of the Count of Arques, was killed fighting for Henry. Henry retreated

from Normandy. Arques surrendered and the count was exiled.

STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, 22 AUGUST 1138

The English for King Stephen against Scottish invaders. David I king of Scots was

Empress Matilda’s uncle. Dissident English barons took refuge at his court. This was the

third Scottish invasion of England in 1138. Stephen was occupied in the south and a

northern army countered the threat, summoned by Thurstan, archbishop of York, and led

y magnates Walter Espec and William of Aumale. A force of royal household knights

under Bernard of Balliol and reinforcements from the midlands joined the northern army.

The English used a

carroccio,

a cart with a pole carrying northern church banners. At its

top was a silver pyx containing the host. This was the Standard. The site was a plain

north of

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orthallerton, Yorkshire. David made the error of allowing the Galwegian claim

to take the van. The English chose a defensive position on a hill, probably Standard Hill

ut possibly Red Hill. Some English knights dismounted to fight on foot, interspersed

with archers—a similar formation to that used in the Hundred Years’ War. The

Galwegian infantry charged and was ‘destroyed by arrows’, looking like ‘hedgehogs with

spines’. Prince Henry of Scots led a cavalry charge from the flank but it was held. The

Scots broke and the English pursued. The battle lasted two hours. A modern track,

Scotpits Lane, reflects the tradition of bodies buried after the battle. The victory eased

Stephen’s worries about his northern frontier.

STRYMON (STRUMA), BATTLE OF THE, 7 NOVEMBER 1185

Marking the end of William II of Sicily’s ambitions regarding the Byzantine Empire.

He was encouraged by dissension within the empire when Isaac Angelus succeeded. A

fleet and an army under the Sicilian Baldwin approached Constantinople. The Greek

commander, Alexius Branas, made a surprise attack, routing the Norman advance force at

Mosynopolis. Negotiations followed but the Greeks attacked the main army at the

Strymon (which runs through Greece and Bulgaria) and routed it. Many drowned in the

river. The Norman generals, Baldwin and Richard of Acerra, were captured. The Norman

fleet was attacked by Thessalonians and much damaged.

TINCHEBRAI, BATTLE OF, 1106

The first Anglo-

orman battle when trained cavalry dismounted to fight on foot, a

victory for Henry I over his brother Robert Curthose. Curthose invaded England, seeking

the throne, and failed. Henry replied by invading Normandy in 1105. He besieged

Tinchebrai Castle, held by William count of Mortain for Curthose. William appealed to

Curthose who attempted relief. Henry constructed a counter castle. The battle was fought

on level ground. Henry formed two lines of infantry with dismounted men, himself in the

second. He placed cavalry on the wings, with relief cavalry under Helias of Maine out o

sight. Curthose dismounted some men but led a cavalry charge, which was held. The

relief force attacked on the flank and broke the enemy. Curthose was captured and never

released. Henry became Duke of Normandy.

VAL-ÈS-DUNES, BATTLE OF, JANUARY 1047

The Norman conquests in Britain and Europe 161

Victory for William the Conqueror and Henry I of France, who aided the young

William against Norman rebels under Guy of Burgundy, William’s cousin. Guy claimed

the duchy, supported by Norman magnates. The rebels assembled in western Normandy

and crossed the Orne to fight on flat ground near Caen. There were cavalry clashes.

Ralph Taisson deserted the rebels to join the king. Henry I was unhorsed but survived.

The young William fought well. The rebels fled, many drowning in the river. Loose

horses galloped over the field. Guy of Burgundy escaped to Brionne Castle, which later

surrendered. The battle saved the duchy for William.

VARAVILLE, BATTLE OF, AUGUST 1057

Defeat by William the Conqueror of Henry I of France and Geoffrey Martel of Anjou.

They invaded Normandy, destroying and pillaging. They were crossing a ford of the

Dives when the Conqueror attacked. Henry succeeded in crossing but tidal water

revented half the army from following. William assembled an army at Falaise. He

attacked the stranded force with archers and knights, decimating it. The invaders

retreated, not to return. The victory aided William’s rise to dominance in western France,

making possible his invasion of England.

VENOSA, BATTLE OF, 17 MARCH 1041

In 1041 the Lombard, Arduin, established Norman knights at Melfi in southern Italy.

Within days they captured Venosa. That

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year three battles were fought and won against

the Byzantines, the first near Venosa at the confluence of the Olivento and Ofanto. The

Byzantines, under Catapan Doceanus, challenged the Normans to fight or leave. When

the messenger had finished, the Norman Hugh Tuboeuf punched his unfortunate horse

etween the eyes, felling it. The rider fainted and was sent back on a new horse with the

reply. The battle was fought next day. Many Greeks and Varangian Guards were killed,

some drowning in the river. The Byzantines withdrew.

WALLINGFORD, SIEGES OF, 1139, 1152–3

A stronghold on the Thames, built inside a Saxon burh, vital in the civil war between

Stephen and Matilda, held by Brian fitz Count, a supporter of Matilda. Stephen besieged

it in 1139. The king built two counter castles, leaving a garrison while he moved west.

Miles of Gloucester, for Matilda, attacked the besiegers and defeated them. Wallingford

remained an easterly salient for Matilda. She rode to Wallingford after escaping from

Oxford in 1142. When Henry took over from his mother, Stephen besieged Wallingford

in 1152, building two counter castles. In 1153 the Londoners gave Stephen aid. Brian fitz

Count sallied but failed to break out. Stephen moved on, leaving Roger of Herefordto

continue the siege but Roger deserted to the enemy. Henry Plantagenet now besieged the

esiegers in their counter castle at Crowmarsh, guarding a bridge over the Thames, the

last major clash of the war. Henry captured a wooden tower and beheaded 60 archers, but

without gaining a decisive victory. Stephen approached and faced Henry over the river. A

truce was agreed; the war was virtually over.

WILTON, BATTLE OF, 1142

A defeat for Stephen in the civil war with Matilda. The king built a castle here against

Robert of Gloucester, a salient into Matilda’s territory. Robert of Gloucester, for Matilda,

esieged Wilton. The king led a sortie that became a battle. The site is now in the

grounds of Wilton House. Stephen placed cavalry on each wing. Robert’s force was in

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 162

three divisions. The Angevin cavalry charged, forcing back the royalists. Stephen fled.

His steward, William Martel, delayed the enemy while Stephen escaped, but was himsel

captured. Stephen surrendered Sherborne Castle in return for William’s release. Wilton

was ravaged by the victors.

WINCHESTER, THE ROUT OF, 14 SEPTEMBER 1141

A victory for Stephen in the civil war against Matilda, while Stephen was a captive.

His brother Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester, was besieged in his castle at Wolvesey

in Winchester from 31 July by Empress Matilda. Henry escaped to join Stephen’s queen,

the other Matilda, who brought a relief force under William of Ypres, including London

militia. There was a double siege—Angevins besieging Wolvesey while themselves

surrounded by royalists. On 2 August royalists fired the city. On the first Sunday in

September an intended Angevin retreat turned into flight. Robert of Gloucester fought a

rearguard action. He saved Matilda but was captured. The Londoners sacked Winchester.

Miles of Gloucester escaped by abandoning his armour to avoid identification. Empress

Matilda escaped, riding astride to Ludgershall and then by litter to Devizes. Her cause

had suffered a major blow. Robert of Gloucester was exchanged for Stephen.

YORK, SIEGE OF, 1069

York held a significant strategic position. It became a capital for Viking kings.

Aethelstan captured it as a step towards becoming King of England. York recovered

independence until the fall of Erik Bloodaxe in 954. Harold Hardrada’s invasion against

Harold Godwinson in 1066 aimed at York. Control of York remained vital and the

Conqueror, after capturing it in 1068, built the castle known as Clifford’s Tower. York

was a base for rebellion and Danish

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invasion in 1069. The castellan of Clifford’s Tower,

Robert fitz Richard, made a rash sortie and his force was wiped out. William Malet

remained in the castle and sent to William for aid. William returned from Normandy and

recovered York. He ‘spared no man’ and built a second castle, the Old Baile. The rebels

attacked York again but were held off. William’s response was the harrying of the north

until ‘there was no village inhabited between York and Durham’. This episode is a vital

part of the imposition of royal control over northern England.

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The Norman conquests in Britain and Europe 163

The Battle of Morat, 1476, from Diebold Schilling’s

Chronicle

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 164

The Holy Roman Empire and central Europe,

850–1500

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I:

Albert II, Charles IV, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, Conrad II, Conrad III,

Conrad IV, Frederick Barbarossa, Frederick II, Frederick III, Henry I the Fowler (HRE),

Henry II (HRE), Henry II the Wrangler of Bavaria, Henry III (HRE), Henry IV (HRE),

Henry V (HRE), Henry VI (HRE), Henry VII (HRE), Henry the Lion, Henry Raspe o

Thuringia, Herman of Luxembourg, John of Luxembourg, Lewis IV, Lothar III,

Maximilian I, Otto I the Great, Otto II, Otto III, Otto IV, Ottokar I, Ottokar II, Prokop,

Rienzi, Rudolf I, Sigismund, Wenceslas II, Wenceslas IV, William of Holland, William

Tell.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Alessandria 1174–5, Aussitz 1426, Benevento 1266 (p. 232), Brescia 1238, Cortenuova

1237, Deutschbrod 1422, Dornach 1499, Durben 1260, Flarcheim 1080, Grandson 1476,

Hohenburg 1075, Hohen-Mölsen 1080, Lake Peipus 1242, Lechfeld 955, Legnano 1176,

Lenzen 929, Liegnitz 1241, Marchfeld 1278, Merseburg 933, Milan 1158–62, Morat

1476, Morgarten 1315, Mühldorf 1322, Nancy 1477, Parma 1247–8, Saaz 1421, St Jakob

1444, Sempach 1386, Tannenberg 1410, Vysehrad 1420, Weinsberg 1140.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

The Holy Roman Empire dated from the papal coronation of Charlemagne in Rome in

800. It claimed to be the descendant of the Roman Empire, controlling most of western

Europe. This situation only endured with the Carolingians. The fall of the

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Carolingians

saw the division of their empire and the formation of new units. Three or four such units

appeared, altered, merged and eventually became East and West Francia, the nuclei o

Germany and France. At first neither of the new monarchies was very strong. East

Francia established itself as the inheritor of Charlemagne’s empire, becoming the Holy

Roman Empire.

Lewis the Child was the last Carolingian ruler of the East Franks. He died in 911, when

an assembly of East Franks at Fircheim elected Conrad duke of Franconia as Conrad I

king of the East Franks. East Francia consisted of four main principalities, the stem

duchies—Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia. To the west was Lotharingia

(Lorraine), initially separate but claimed by both East and West Francia. Conrad I

favoured his own duchy against the others. He tried to win Lotharingia but failed. He

tried to limit ducal power but with little success. He faced revolts in Saxony and Bavaria,

which remained virtually independent.

While the West Franks established hereditary monarchy, East Francia remained

elective, its ruler chosen from one duchy and family then another. This restricted the

growth of power of the kings. On Conrad’s death Henry the Fowler of Saxony was

elected at Fritzlar, with the support of only two duchies. He fought to win wider

recognition. Bavaria accepted his rule when he defeated Duke Arnulf in 921. Henry

married the Duke of Lotharingia’s daughter. His greatest achievement was against his

pagan neighbours—Magyars, Slavs and Danes—including victory at Unstrut.

Henry the Fowler seemed to have established a Saxon dynasty. His son was elected as

Otto I (the Great). In 962 Otto was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII,

establishing East Francia as the heir to Charlemagne’s empire. The ruler elected by the

German duchies was called King of the Romans. Only if crowned by the pope could he

roperly be called emperor. In common parlance, however, the rulers of Germany are

often referred to as emperors, and we shall follow this practice.

Otto I forced the papacy to give him imperial coronation but the need to have papal

lessing caused problems for his successors. Otto faced internal revolt and external

threats. Eberhard rebelled but was killed in battle and his duchy, Franconia, was added to

the royal demesne. Otto extended his family power by establishing his brother in Bavaria,

his son in Swabia and his brother-in-law in Lotharingia. From Lotharingia he developed

German interest in Italy, which would dog imperial history through the Middle Ages.

Otto had notable success over the Magyars at Lechfeld.

The son and grandson of Otto I continued family expansion. Otto II gained imperial

restige through marriage to a Byzantine princess. Otto III faced opposition from Henry

the Wrangler of Bavaria. He made regular Italian expeditions, three in six years. He died

without heir. The clash with the papacy reached crisis point under Henry IV who was

elected as a minor, not reaching his majority until 1065. His clash with Gregory VII came

over the archbishopric of Milan. Henry threatened to bring down the pope, calling him a

false monk and demanding ‘let another mount the throne of St Peter’. In turn Henry IV

was excommunicated and deposition threatened. Henry submitted to the pope at Canossa

in 1077. The death of his rival Rudolf of Swabia, killed at Hohen-Mölsen, was a turning

oint in his control of the German princes. In 1084 Henry attacked Rome and deposed

Gregory, who was rescued by the Normans of southern Italy. Henry V (HRE) reached an

agreement with the papacy to resolve the Investiture Controversy by the Concordat o

Worms.

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The Holy Roman Emperors found it difficult to maintain power in Germany. Constant

changes of dynasty made it hard to establish a demesne. Frederick Barbarossa, arguably

the greatest emperor, attempted to regain dominance in Germany and the west. He was

elected after a period of frequently changing ruling familes—from Saxony, Bavaria and

his own Swabia. His family was the Hohenstaufen. He was Conrad III’s nephew,

preferred to Conrad’s young son. The Hohenstaufen lands were on the fringes o

Germany. Frederick’s second marriage, to Beatrice of Burgundy, directed his interest

south. He built up the royal demesne and imperial administration through officials called

ministeriales. A major threat came from the duchy of Saxony under Henry the Lion.

Their early good relationship deteriorated. Frederick used other magnates to bring down

Henry, who was exiled, while Saxony was split in two. Frederick was crowned emperor

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 166

in Rome in 1155 but the Lombard League of Italian towns formed against him and

rebelled. On his final expedition Frederick failed to take Alessandria and was defeated at

Legnano. He recognised Lombard freedom. Frederick married his son Henry to the

heiress Constance of Sicily, leading to imperial rule of the Norman kingdom.

Henry VI died in 1197. His young son Frederick was not elected. Frederick though, as

the son of Constance of Sicily, inherited that kingdom, which became his base. In

Germany power went to Otto IV of Saxony, though opposed by Frederick’s uncle, Philip

of Swabia, in a civil war that lasted until Philip died. Otto’s fate was sealed when he

oined an alliance against Philip Augustus of France and was defeated at Bouvines. The

young Frederick was crowned at Aachen.

Frederick II had to compromise with the German princes to keep his throne while

facing a rival in Henry Raspe. Frederick was excommunicated by the pope for failing to

go on crusade, though he eventually went and was crowned King of Jerusalem. He

defeated the Lombard League at Cortenuova in 1237. He suppressed a rebellion by his

son Enzio and his chief minister Piero della Vigna.

After Frederick II the empire declined as a western power, becoming increasingly

divided. The inherent weaknesses of its monarchical system became more apparent. The

nobles and the towns of Germany and Lombardy became independent of imperial

control. Frederick’s descendants fought to keep Sicily but Anjou and Aragón ousted

them. Imperial territory in Italy declined into a patchwork of lesser states—the kingdom

of Sicily/Naples, the Papal States and the city states of Milan, Venice and Florence.

Germany was weakened by internal division. The death of Conrad IV was followed by a

20-year interregnum, no ruler winning universal acceptance. Rudolf of Habsburg was

elected in 1273 but his son was not. The Habsburgs remained powerful but were opposed

by the Wittelsbachs.

Central Europe was an ever-changing patchwork of states through the Middle Ages,

not unlike the Balkan region. Poland, Lithuania, Hungary and Bohemia were the major

units (with the Empire)—

ower moving from one to the other. Magyars and Slavs

formed a large part of the population. Christian wars against pagans marked the early

Middle Ages. Later the Teutonic Knights and the Mongols (Tatars) joined the fray.

A political unit existed in Poland from the early Middle Ages. Mieszko I converted to

Christianity in 966. His son Boleslaw I was the first crowned king though coronation

remained difficult and intermittent. Feudal ties developed but power was often in

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the

hands of dukes rejoicing in such names as Henry the Bearded, Boleslaw the Bashful,

Henry the Honourable and Wladislaw Spindleshanks. Przemysł II duke of Krakow

brought more unity, ruling Gdańsk (Danzig) and eastern Pomerania. He arranged for his

own coronation only to be murdered before it could happen, in 1296. Wenceslas II o

Bohemia was crowned king in 1300, uniting the crowns. A separate Polish monarchy

returned in 1320 with the coronation of Wladyslaw the Short-Elbowed, who lost some

territory but strengthened internal rule. Poland proper emerged with Casimir in the Great

who increased royal power, fortified towns, built castles and regained Mazovia. After a

succession crisis the throne went jointly in 1386 to Jadwiga daughter of Louis of Hungary

and her husband Jagiello, Grand Duke of Lithuania and previously pagan. The dynasty

ruled Poland until 1572. The power of the Knights declined after their defeat at

The holy Roman empire and central Europe 167

Tannenberg in 1410. The dynasty came to control Hungary and Bohemia as well as

Lithuania and Poland.

In northern Europe a crusading movement led to the conversion of the pagan Baltic

(north Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Livonia, Estonia). Christians from Scandinavia and

the west with the Military Orders participated. The Sword Brothers were important early,

later absorbed into the Teutonic Knights. They focused on the Baltic region. The Knights

conquered Prussia. They were defeated by Alexander Nevsky at Lake Peipus. In 1410

they were beaten by the (now Christian) Lithuanians at Tannenberg. Western crusaders

still came to Marienburg, where their shields were displayed on the walls, among them

Henry Grosmont of Lancaster and Henry Bolingbroke. Ordinary people, especially from

Germany, came for land. Crusading transformed into wars between Christians for

territory. The Teutonic Order declined from 700 members in 1410 to 300 by 1453 but

survived the Middle Ages.

Hungary was another major state in central Europe, formed from Magyar settlement. It

had constant contact with the Holy Roman Empire to its west and Balkan countries to its

east. The Mongols had overrun Hungary in the mid-13th century when the larger of the

two-pronged Mongol invasion had defeated Béla IV at the River Sajó in 1241. In the

same year, however, the Great Khān Ögedei died and the Mongols withdrew. There was

still Mongol activity in Hungary in the later 13th century but the main threat had passed.

A stronger western influence was felt with the succession of Charles Robert (Carobert) in

1310 as Charles I, the grandson of the Angevin Charles II of Naples. He restored

Hungarian unity, defeating his internal opponents at Rozgony in 1319. He married

Elizabeth, sister of Casimir the Great of Poland, and their son Louis ruled both kingdoms.

In a 40-year reign Louis the Great recovered the Dalmatian coast from Venice,

Wallachia, Moldavia, Bosnia and part of Serbia and Bulgaria. Hungary suffered under

Sigismund, largely because of his wide interests elsewhere and his costly wars. After his

death for a time the union with Poland was restored. Hungary was saved by the efforts o

its general, John Hunyadi, despite the disaster at Varna in 1444 due to the king breaking

the truce. Hunyadi saved Belgrade just before his death in 1456. Hunyadi’s son, Matthias

I Corvinus, was elected king despite having no claim by inheritance. He reformed the

army, demanding service from a proportion of the serfs, and won back ground from the

Turks. He crusaded against the Hussites. He recovered Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia.

From Austria he won Salzburg and Styria, in 1485 besieging and taking Vienna, where he

died in 1490.

The imperial concept crumbled in central and eastern Europe, where German

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claims

of lordship were overthrown and smaller states established themselves, including

Bohemia. Charles of Moravia succeeded his father John as king. He was elected as

Emperor Charles IV in 1346. He is accused of favouring Bohemia at the expense of the

empire, granting privileges to Prague. By the Golden Bull he recognised limitations on

emperors, which were already apparent, defining the system for election. Seven electors

were named, one being the King of Bohemia. The Czechs sought independence and

revolted against Sigismund in the Hussite wars. Sigismund invaded Bohemia but was

defeated at Vyšehrad by Žiška. Prokop took over as Bohemian commander. Sigismund

finally captured Prague but recognised self-rule.

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Switzerland also escaped from imperial grasp. The region was dominated by the

Habsburgs from the 13th century. Three mountain cantons agreed to exclude Habsburg

control. Their confederation grew. Their attempt at independence led to wars. They

defeated the Austrians at Morgarten. Swiss military methods became a model for others

and the papacy employed Swiss Guards. The cantons called their confederacy Schwyz

and resisted the Habsburgs. The story of William Tell symbolises the fight but may be

fictional. Sigismund recognised their independence in 1415. They still had to resist

attempts at control by Burgundy. Charles the Bold of Burgundy was beaten at Grandson.

Swiss independence was recognised by Burgundy in the Peace of Zurich.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ALESSANDRIA (ALEXANDRIA), SIEGE OF, 1174–5

Frederick Barbarossa besieged Alessandria from 29 October on his fifth Italian

expedition. Alessandria was founded on the Po by the Lombard League against Frederick

and named after Pope Alexander III who was hostile to Frederick. On Good Friday

Frederick broke the Truce of God to mine the wall. His men entered but were defeated.

Frederick abandoned the siege on 13 April, Easter Sunday, burning his camp and siege

equipment. Three days later he made terms with the Lombard League. There was a battle

at Alessandria in 1391, when Milan defeated Florence.

AUSSITZ (AUSSIG/ÚSTI), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1426

The Hussites besieged Aussitz on the Elbe in Bohemia. Frederick the elector of Saxony

led the third anti-Hussite ‘Crusade’ and on 16 June sought to relieve Aussitz, which he

had been granted by Sigismund. The Hussites under Prokop drew up wagons defensively

on a hill. The Hussites held off Frederick with artillery fire. They then used cavalry to

break and pursue the enemy.

BRESCIA, SIEGE OF, 1238

Besieged by Frederick II from 3 August to 9 October. Brescia is to the east of Milan, a

stronghold that Frederick needed to control if he were to win Milan. Frederick brought

siege engines and mining gear. An engineer, the Spaniard Calamandrino, was captured

and was offered gifts (a house and a woman) to change sides. He showed the Brescians

how to make catapults against Frederick’s belfries. The besiegers tied captives to the

front of their engines to discourage attack. The Brescians lowered captives on ropes

before the walls at which Frederick’s rams were aimed. A nocturnal sortie surprised

Frederick. With winter Frederick retreated to Cremona.

CORTENUOVA, BATTLE OF, 27 NOVEMBER 1237

Victory for Frederick II against the Lombard League. He moved from Cremona to

catch the enemy near the crossing of the Oglio at Cortenuova. Frederick’s van was

initially successful but the Milanese around their

carroccio

held on. With darkness the

Lombards abandoned the field in heavy rain, leaving the

carroccio

stuck in the

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mud.

Frederick made a triumphal entry into Cremona, pulling the

carroccio

by elephant. The

success did not endure. Frederick failed to take Brescia the following year.

DEUTSCHBROD (NĚMECKÝBROD), SIEGE OF, 10 JANUARY 1422

Victory for the Hussites under Žiška, leading to the expulsion of imperial forces from

Bohemia. The Hussites had beaten Sigismund at Kuttenberg on 6 January but many

The holy Roman empire and central Europe 169

escaped. A large number of these took shelter in Deutschbrod. It was stormed and those

within massacred.

DORNACH, BATTLE OF, 22 JULY 1499

Defeat of Emperor Maximilian by the Swiss, the decisive battle in the Swiss struggle

for independence which led to the Treaty of Basle, recognising that independence.

DURBEN (DURBE), BATTLE OF, JULY 1260

Defeat of the Teutonic Knights by the Lithuanians, leading to a revival of paganism in

the eastern Baltic after the second Prussian revolt. The Knights tried to relieve besieged

Christian garrisons. Their master, Von Hornhausen, was ambushed and killed in the

attle. Kurland revolted and Livonia was lost. There followed a series of crusades and the

revolt was not suppressed until 1283.

FLARCHEIM, BATTLE OF, 27 JANUARY 1080

An indecisive battle but Henry IV (HRE) withdrew from the field, leaving Rudolf o

Rheinfelden duke of Swabia to claim victory. The pope declared Henry deposed but

Rudolf was killed later in the year. Henry recovered power in Germany.

GRANDSON, 2 MARCH 1476

Swiss defeat of Charles the Bold duke of Burgundy. Charles captured Grandson and

hanged its garrison. He advanced towards Neuchâtel when the Swiss van met him at the

foot of Mont Aubert near Lake Geneva. The Swiss formed a defensive square and made

infantry charges with pikes. Charles tried to break them with artillery and cavalry but

failed. The appearance of Swiss reinforcements on the flank decided the issue. The

Burgundians fled, losing 400 pieces of artillery. The Swiss recovered Grandson.

HOHENBURG (HOMBURG-ON-UNSTRUT), BATTLE OF, 9 JUNE 1075

Defeat of the Saxons by Henry IV (HRE) during Henry’s first war with the Saxons

after Saxony and Thuringia rebelled. Henry raised support, especially from southern

Germany. Rudolf of Swabia made a charge on Henry’s behalf but had to be rescued by

the Bavarians.

HOHEN-MÖLSEN, BATTLE OF, 15 OCTOBER 1080

Indecisive battle but Henry IV (HRE)’s rival Rudolf of Swabia was fatally wounded. A

replacement anti-king was elected in Hermann of Salm but the battle established Henry’s

position in Germany.

LAKE PEIPUS, BATTLE OF, 5 APRIL 1242

Victory of Alexander Nevsky over the Teutonic Knights, fought over the ice at the

crossing between Lakes Peipus and Pskov. The Knights had Danish, Livonian and

Estonian allies. The Russians made the best of the conditions. Their horse archers forced

ack the enemy left. The Knights were surrounded and slaughtered. Their position in the

Baltic declined sharply after the defeat.

LECHFELD, BATTLE OF, 10 AUGUST 955

Victory for Otto I against the Magyars, who had been raiding west into Europe under

Karchas Bulcsu. It was fought by the Lech near Augsburg in Bavaria, which the Magyars

had been besieging. Initially the Magyars were successful, surprising Otto with a sudden

attack on his camp by a second force from the flank. Otto took up shield and lance to lead

the charge that settled the battle. Conrad the Red of

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Lorraine, fighting for Otto, was

killed. Afterwards the Magyars settled in Hungary. Otto was now called ‘the Great’.

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