Bradbury Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

attention from the crusading states.

The Muslims made further inroads against the crusader states under Nur ed-Din, son o

Zangi, who united Syria. For Nur ed-Din the general Shirkuh, with his nephew Saladin,

pushed into Christian territory. On the death of Nur ed-Din, Saladin ruled Syria. He

defeated the Christians under King Guy at Hattin in 1187. The kingdom of Jerusalem

never entirely recovered. Jerusalem fell to Saladin and soon only Tyre remained of the

great cities. This situation inspired the Third Crusade, under Richard the Lionheart, Philip

Augustus and Frederick Barbarossa. It had more success than the Second Crusade.

Barbarossa died before reaching the Holy Land. Richard stopped on his way to capture

Cyprus, a major gain. The crusaders took Acre. Philip returned to the west. Richard won

at Arsuf in 1191 but did not reach Jerusalem, concluding a treaty with Saladin in 1192.

Richard was captured by the emperor while returning and ransomed. The kingdom o

Jerusalem survived but in truncated form.

Saladin died in 1193, offering possibilities for a new crusade. Crusaders assembling in

Italy found themselves so in debt to Venice for transport that they were persuaded to

ursue the interests of the Republic. Instead of going to the Holy Land the Fourth

Crusade attacked Christian Zara on the Adriatic and then Constantinople, which they

took in 1204 installing the Latin emperor, Baldwin. The Latin Empire survived until 1261

when the Greeks recovered Constantinople. The episode provided little aid for the

struggling remnant of the kingdom of Jerusalem.

One un-numbered episode was the Children’s Crusade of 1212, which demonstrated

surviving enthusiasm among ordinary folk. Thousands were led to Marseilles and were

shipped to North Africa. Most were sold as slaves to Muslims! Others found their way to

Italy. Some were lucky enough to return home.

The Fifth Crusade, concluded by Frederick II (HRE), was extraordinary. The crusade

started without the emperor against Egypt. Damietta was taken but then lost. Frederick

had long promised to crusade but was excommunicated by the pope for delays. He finally

went while excommunicated! His Crusade was more a diplomatic mission than a

campaign. With his knowledge of Muslims from Sicily, he negotiated with al-Kamil and

in 1229 agreed a treaty. Both sides made concessions. The Christians received possession

of the Holy Places with agreed Muslim access. Frederick was crowned in Jerusalem. His

intervention helped create a civil war in Outremer and the treaty concessions were

unpopular.

By the mid-13th century the kingdom had disintegrated. The monarchy’s authority

declined. It became the kingdom of Acre, power chiefly with lords and Italian

zv184

merchants. After the Fourth Crusade the numbering system, always rather shaky, has less

significance. The next crusades are better known as those of St Louis. Western aims

ecame less clear. The Fourth Crusade ended at Constantinople. The Sixth Crusade was

aimed at splitting the Muslims of Syria from those of Egypt. It was argued that control o

the Holy Land depended on defeating the main Muslim power in the region. Louis sailed

in 1248 to besiege Damietta, which was captured. Supplies ran short and disease attacked

in the heat. In 1250 Louis was defeated and captured at Mansurah, though later

ransomed. He may have been a great king but he was not a greatly successful crusader.

He tried again, believing that the Emir of Tunis would become Christian. Louis was

The crusades, 1095–1500 191

already ill and was carried on board by litter. Tunis resisted and Louis died before its

walls in 1270.

The Mamlukes of Egypt halted the expansion of the Mongols in the Middle East. Qtuz

won at Ayn Jalut to become Sultan, reuniting Syria and Egypt. He was assassinated and

succeeded by the Turkish Mamluke, Baybars. The surviving crusader strongholds fell—

Caesarea, Athlit, Arsuf, Safed, Jaffa and Beaufort. Edward I of England made a late

expedition in 1271, when an assassin made an attempt on his life. Edward made a two-

year truce to gain a little time. Western enthusiasm for crusading declined. Qalawun took

over from Baybars. He defeated the Mongols at Homs and concentrated on the Latins. He

captured Tripoli in 1289. His son al-Ashraf delivered the final blow, taking Acre in 1291.

The surviving pockets were mopped up and the kingdom ended. Within a decade Acre

was deserted, its ruins picked over by a few peasants.

Crusading history is now viewed more broadly. There were other areas of operation

against Muslims and pagans—in Iberia, northern and eastern Europe—and continuing

opposition to Muslims in Africa, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. The

econquista

proceeded throughout the Middle Ages. Crusading continued in the later

Middle Ages. There were attempts to retake the Holy Land through Recovery Crusades.

There were Crusades against enemies of the papacy—religious, political, heretical and

schismatic. In southern France and northern Italy the heretical Cathars were attacked by

the Albigensian Crusade. In eastern Europe the followers of John Hus, the Hussites, were

declared heretical and crusades sent against them, Crusades were declared against the

olitical enemies of the papacy, for example the descendants of Frederick II (HRE)

attempting to retain Sicily. Crusading indulgences were offered to those opposing the

rebels in the Sicilian Vespers, themselves supporters of Aragón. Crusades were declared

against the Colonna family in Italy, Venice in 1309, Ferrara in 1321, Landau’s mercenary

company in 1357, Naples in 1382 and Castile in 1371. In Castile two rival popes declared

crusades against each other. This distorting of the crusading ideal helped tarnish the

image of the concept. The Recovery Crusades in eastern Europe came closest to retaining

the concept of the movement in the later Middle Ages. The extension of Muslim power

into Europe by the Ottomans can be linked to this, with crusades declared against them.

One idea was to organise small expeditions with particular objectives.

The Baltic crusades were partly the work of the military orders, especially of the

Sword Brothers and the Teutonic Knights. This is examined in Section 6. It led to the

conversion of much of the surviving pagan areas of Europe.

After the fall of Acre and the kingdom a Christian state survived in Cilician Armenia,

enduring to 1375. The Cilicians supported the Mongols in Syria and suffered

zv185

with their

defeat. A new threat emerged with Tamberlane, who captured Baghdad in 1392 and

attacked Syria. He defeated the Mamlukes near Ankara in 1402, capturing Bayezit. Then

the Ottomans overran Byzantine territory in Asia Minor and Europe. The Smyrna

Crusade went against them in 1356. The Christians won a naval victory and captured

Smyrna, which they retained until 1402. The Nicopolis Crusade went to northern

Bulgaria in 1396, when Sigismund of Hungary was defeated by Bayezit. In 1444

Hunyadi besieged Varna. A Turkish relief force defeated this last major crusade from

west to east.

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 192

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ACRE, SIEGES OF, 1189–91, 1291

Acre was the major port of the kingdom of Jerusalem, jutting into the sea, with walls to

rotect the land side. Its harbour was protected by a mole, on which stood the Tower o

Flies. After the Battle of Hattin, King Guy was released. Acre was taken by the Turks

after Hattin. Guy sought to restore his reputation by recovering Acre. He began the siege

with 400 knights and 7,000 infantry on 28 August 1189. Saladin brought a relief force but

could not get through. The crusaders, according to the enemy, were solaced by a shipload

of beauties with fleshy thighs. Guy was reinforced by the arrival of the Third Crusade,

first Philip Augustus and then Richard the Lionheart. Both kings fell ill during the siege.

They broke in on 12 July 1191. Richard threw down the standard of Leopold of Austria

from the wall. Philip returned to France. Saladin was slow to pay the ransom and Richard

ordered the killing of 2,700 prisoners. The fall of Acre in 1291 was the deathblow to the

crusader kingdom, sometimes called the kingdom of Acre. It was a base for the military

orders and Italian merchants. The attack was planned by Qalawun and undertaken, after

his death, by his son al-Ashraf from 6 April with 220,000 men. His engines included

Victorious

and

Furious

. Acre was taken on 18 May and razed to the ground.

ANTIOCH (ANTAKYA), BATTLE AND SIEGES OF, 1097–8, 1268

Antioch (now Antakya in Turkey) on the Orontes, 12 miles from the sea, was a major

target for the First Crusade. It was a Byzantine city taken by the Turks in 1085. The

garrison in 1097 was under Emir Yaghi-Siyan. The crusaders arrived on 21 October

1097. They beat off two relieving forces at Homs in 1097 and by Lake Antioch in 1098.

To discourage the garrison, 200 Turkish heads were shot over the walls. The crusaders

took Antioch on 3 June 1098, when a traitor opened the gate to the Tower of the Two

Sisters, though the citadel on Mount Silpius resisted. The Christians were then besieged

within the city by a newly arrived force under Kerbogha of Mosul. Some Christians

escaped to return west, including Stephen-Henry count of Blois. In the battle on 28 June

1098 the crusaders made a sortie to attack the Muslim camp. Antioch became the centre

of a new crusader principality. On 18 May 1268 Antioch was recovered by the Turks

under Baybars after a brief siege. The garrison was under the constable, Simon Mansel.

Simon led a sortie and was captured. The Muslims proclaimed ‘the God who gave you

Antioch has taken it away again’. Crosses were smashed, women sold four for a dinar,

pages of holy books were scattered, tombs overturned and monks had their throats slit.

ARSUF, BATTLE OF, 7 SEPTEMBER 1191

Victory of Richard the Lionheart against Saladin during the Third Crusade, to the north

of Arsuf. Arsuf was captured by the Franks in 1101. The crusaders were attacked when

marching south from Acre

zv186

to Jaffa along the coast. During the march Richard was

wounded in the side by a spear. To the east of Arsuf was forest. The army was supplied

from ships. Richard kept infantry on the left of the march to protect the cavalry from

flank attack, especially by mounted archers. Saladin provoked the Hospitallers at the rear

to turn and charge. This could have led to the break-up of the crusader formation but

Richard followed up with a series of charges. The Muslim army broke but there was no

ursuit, Richard continuing his march. Saladin avoided further pitched battle and Richard

had the edge in negotiations over the future of the kingdom.

The crusades, 1095–1500 193

ASCALON, BATTLE OF, 12 AUGUST 1099

After Jerusalem was captured in the First Crusade, Egyptian Muslims under al-Afdal

attempted its recovery. The Egyptians had the larger army. The hastily assembled

Christian army captured the enemy supply train and next day attacked their camp near

Ascalon at dawn. Godfrey de Bouillon blocked a flank attack. Robert Curthose and

Tancred led the centre charge to win the battle. The Christians captured much wealth,

including gold and precious stones. Ascalon settled the establishment of the kingdom o

Jerusalem.

AYN JALUT (AIN JALUD/THE POOLS OF GOLIATH), BATTLE OF, 3

SEPTEMBER 1260

Vital in determining the future of the Middle East. Ayn Jalut was in Palestine (modern

Israel) near Lake Galilee. The Mamluke Sultan Qtuz defeated the Mongols under Kitbuqa

(a Christian) representing Hulagu. The Egyptians were allowed to march through

Christian territory but given no aid. The Egyptians took position in a valley. Qtuz’s

general Baybars led a feigned flight, drawing the Mongols into a trap. Qtuz led the

decisive charge. Mongol expansion was halted. The surviving crusader state was

vulnerable to the Muslims. Qtuz was killed on the way home in a coup by Baybars.

CIVETOT (CIBOTUS), BATTLE OF, 21 OCTOBER 1096

The first major battle of the crusades that destroyed the People’s Crusade. The

crusaders took Xerigordon, which the Muslims under Kilij Arslan recovered. The Turks

approached the remaining crusaders at Civetot, a disused Byzantine fort in Asia Minor on

the Sea of Marmora. Peter the Hermit had gone to Constantinople and the leaders at

Civetot included Walter the Penniless. Walter advised staying put but majority opinion

favoured marching out to face the Turks. The Christians were ambushed near Dracon by

archers. They broke and the Turks attacked the camp. Many were killed, including

Walter; others were enslaved.

DAMASCUS, SIEGE OF, 1148

The Second Crusade besieged Damascus from 24 to 28 July. Conrad III (HRE) and

Louis VII of France decided, unwisely, to aim for Damascus. Baldwin III of Jerusalem

oined them. Their reason was probably to save it from Nur ed-Din. In one incident

Conrad killed an opponent with a blow of his sword, removing head, shoulder and one

arm. At first they attacked from the west. Muslim reinforcements arrived and entered

Damascus. The kings moved to the east of the city. Orchards had made approach from

the west difficult and they thought the east less well defended. They were now without

shelter, food or water. The garrison made a sortie. Frankish corpses smelled strongly

enough ‘to make the birds fall out of the sky’. Fears of a relief army led to the

abandonment of the siege and the collapse of the Second Crusade.

DAMIETTA, SIEGES OF, 1218–19, 1249–50

From 29 May 1218 the Fifth Crusade besieged Damietta in Egypt at the mouth of the

ile with its three enclosing walls. The leaders included John de Brienne and Leopold o

Austria. The Egyptians blocked progress on the Nile at Damietta with a chain and a

bridge of boats. The attackers tried to break through with a siege tower

zv187

lashed on two

ships to attack the defences from above. The besiegers suffered from a disease that turned

their skin black and killed many. Al-Kamil attacked their camp but achieved little. A

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 194

Muslim relief attempt failed. St Francis of Assisi acted as a Christian envoy—the

Muslims thought the grubby saint a figure of scorn. On 5 November the crusaders broke

in. Their attack on Cairo failed. The crusaders were isolated and surrendered Damietta in

1221. On 4 June 1249 St Louis’ crusade arrived there. Louis leaped into the water up to

his armpits rushing ashore. He used engines while the enemy hurled Greek Fire and

firebolts like ‘stars falling out of heaven’. On 6 June the crusaders entered the city but

found it abandoned. After the crusaders were defeated at Mansurah, Damietta

surrendered on 6 May 1250.

DORYLAEUM (ESKISHEHIR), BATTLES OF, 1 JULY 1097, 25 OCTOBER 1147

The first battle was the major victory of the First Crusade over the Seljuks. The

crusaders took Nicaea and advanced south in two groups. They had not advanced far

when the van, under Bohemond with the counts of Normandy, Flanders and Blois, was

attacked by Kilij Arslan at a mountain pass near Dorylaeum (now in Turkey). The

Turkish mounted archers were effective. Bohemond used infantry to protect the mounted

warriors and allow them to charge. The second force, under Godfrey de Bouillon and

Raymond de St Gilles, arrived to attack from the rear, winning the battle. The crusaders

found much wealth in the Muslim camp. A second battle occurred near Dorylaeum in

1147 during the Second Crusade. A German force under Conrad III (HRE) was defeated

by the Turks. The crusaders’ retreat turned into a rout, greatly weakening the crusade.

EDESSA (URFA), SIEGES OF, 1098, 1144

Baldwin le Bourg (later Baldwin I of Jerusalem) reached Edessa in Mesopotamia on 6

February 1098. He struck east over the Euphrates, leaving the main army. Edessa was

under the Armenian Thoros, who made Baldwin an ally and adopted him as his son. In

the ceremony a large shirt was placed over them both while they rubbed breasts! Thoros

was murdered by his citizens on 9 March. Baldwin declared himself Count of Edessa, the

first principality in the kingdom of Jerusalem. The Muslims under Kerbogha tried to

recover Edessa in May 1098 but Baldwin resisted successfully and delayed the Muslim

army heading for Antioch. On Christmas Day 1144 Zangi recovered Edessa from Count

Joscelin II (who was elsewhere), the first major loss for the crusader kingdom that

provoked the Second Crusade. Zangi’s bombardment was so intense that ‘even the birds

dared not fly near’. The walls were mined and the city stormed. The county of Edessa

was not revived.

FIELD OF BLOOD

(AGER SANGUINIS),

BATTLE OF THE, 28 JUNE 1119

Ilghazi of Aleppo defeated Roger prince of Antioch. Roger tried to extend his power

around Aleppo, advancing without waiting for reinforcements, against the advice of King

Baldwin. Faced by Ilghazi, Roger took a defensive position in the hilly country west o

Aleppo, in a valley with wooded slopes on each side. Ilghazi surrounded him. The battle

opened with archers shooting from either side. The wind blew dust in the Christian faces.

The Christians were routed and Roger was killed, only a few escaping. Most prisoners

were tortured and killed. It demonstrated Muslim recovery since the First Crusade.

HARBIYA (LA FORBIE), BATTLE OF, 17 OCTOBER 1244

Victory for the Egyptians and Khorezmians under Emir Baybars over a combined army

of Christians and Muslims from Damascus. The site was a sandy plain north-east o

Gaza, now in Israel. Members of the Leper Hospital of St Lazarus took part. Walter o

The crusades, 1095–1500 195

Jaffa favoured attack, believing his forces superior, but the charge failed. Under attack

the Damascenes broke and fled. The

zv188

defeat struck a serious blow to the crusader

kingdom. Over a thousand knights were killed, including the grand master of the

Templars. Eight hundred prisoners were taken. It inspired St Louis’ crusade though his

efforts were not very effective.

HATTIN, BATTLE OF, 4 JULY 1187

Defeat for Guy king of Jerusalem by Saladin. Saladin besieged Tiberias on Lake

Galilee and Guy brought a relief army. The town was taken but the garrison, including

Raymond of Tripoli’s wife Eschiva, held out. Guy marched over difficult country,

without water. Saladin harassed the march. Guy halted on the slopes of the twin-

eaked

Horns of Hattin, though others advised continuing to the lake. Saladin fired the scrub. In

the morning the Muslims attacked, their archers bringing down many horses. Count

Raymond, leading the van, broke out and escaped. Guy was captured and later released.

Rainald of Châtillon was captured and executed. The defeat caused the near collapse o

the kingdom, with Saladin taking Jerusalem and other territory. Tiberias surrendered on 5

July.

HOMS, BATTLES OF, 30 OCTOBER 1281, 23 DECEMBER 1299

Qalawun of Egypt defeated the Mongols under Mangu Timur in 1281. Homs was on

the border of Tripoli and a target in the Christian-Muslim conflicts. The Mongols invaded

Syria, joined by some Armenian and crusader Christians. The victory ended Christian

hopes of escaping Egyptian domination after the Mongols withdrew. A battle occurred

nearby at Salamia in 1299 when the Mongols again invaded and were faced by

Egyptians. The Mongols under Ghazzan won but their domination was short-lived. In any

case it was too late to save the crusader kingdom.

JERUSALEM, SIEGES OF, 1099, 1187, 1244

Jerusalem was besieged during the First Crusade from 7 June. The city had recently

fallen to the Egyptian Fatimids. Its governor was Iftiqah ad-Dawla. The crusaders were

under Godfrey de Bouillon, Raymond de St Gilles, Robert Curthose, Robert of Flanders

and Tancred. The Muslims removed all animals from outside the city and poisoned the

wells. The crusaders attacked from the north-west. Ships’ timbers from the fleet at Jaffa

were made into siege engines and towers because of the lack of trees. Jerusalem fell on

15 July and the crusaders carried out a sack and massacre, wading up to their ankles in

lood. There were too many corpses to clear and a great stench arose. Iftiqah and a few

others were allowed to leave, after surrendering to Raymond de St Gilles. Jerusalem

ecame the capital of the new crusading kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1187 Saladin took

Jerusalem from the Christians after Hattin. The defence was under the recently arrived

Balian of Ibelin, who knighted young nobles and other residents to boost morale. The

siege began on 20 September. Balian negotiated the surrender on 2 October. Many were

ransomed. In 1244 Jerusalem was taken by the Khorezsmian Turks. The city fell but the

garrison held out until 23 August when it surrendered. This ended the compromise that

allowed Christians a place in the city.

KRAK (CRAC) DES CHEVALIERS (HUSN EL AKRAD), SIEGE OF, 1271

The great crusader castle, near Tripoli in Syria, was taken by Baybars. Built in 1115, it

was held by the Knights Hospitaller from 1144. It resisted several sieges. That by

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 196

Baybars, whose allies included the Assassins, began on 3 March. Rain prevented the

siege engines working for a while but they broke the outer wall on 15 March. At the end

of March the Muslims entered the inner bailey. On 8 April those in the only tower still

resisting surrendered and were granted a safe-conduct to Tripoli. Baybars made repairs

and garrisoned the castle.

MA’ARRAT AL-NUMAN, SIEGE OF, 1098

Besieged during the First Crusade before the attack on Jerusalem. Raymond de

zv189

Gilles and Baldwin of Flanders arrived on 27 November. They attempted storm on 28

ovember but failed. Bohemond arrived that day but a second attack also failed. A belfry

was built for an attack on 11 December. The crusaders broke in late in the day. Next day

they carried out a massacre, torturing and killing prisoners, even eating their buttocks.

Raymond and Bohemond quarrelled over who should have the town, which was finally

left under the bishop of Albara.

MANSURAH (AL-MANSURA), BATTLE OF, 8 FEBRUARY 1250

Between Baybars (for Turan Shah) with an Egyptian army and St Louis on his first

crusade. In 1249 Louis advanced from Damietta towards Cairo, reaching Mansurah in the

ile Delta in December. The Egyptians faced him over a tributary of the Nile. In

February the Christians tried to cross. The Egyptians hurled barrels of Greek Fire. A

traitor showed the crusaders a ford, which some crossed. Louis’

rother, Robert of Artois,

charged rashly into Mansurah and was killed, as was the Earl of Salisbury. The main

army fought a difficult battle to hold their ground. Louis could claim a victory, albeit

Pyrrhic. In March the crusaders retreated, suffering heavily on the way, especially the

Templars who gave cover. Louis was captured and the crusade ended in disaster. Baybars

seized power in Egypt.

MONTGISARD, BATTLE OF, 25 NOVEMBER 1177

Victory by Baldwin IV of Jerusalem over Saladin. Saladin, ruler of Egypt, invaded the

kingdom of Jerusalem. He attacked Ascalon and aimed for Jerusalem. Baldwin

summoned the Templars from Gaza. The brothers Baldwin and Balian of Ibelin were

among the Christian leaders. King Baldwin caught the Muslims by surprise crossing a

ravine near the castle of Montgisard, near Ramleh. The Muslims were scattered, some

foraging. It was claimed that St George appeared to aid the crusaders. Many Muslims

were killed and Saladin retreated, the worst defeat of his career though the setback was

only temporary.

MONTSÉGUR, SIEGE OF, 1243–4

Conclusion of the Albigensian Crusade. Montségur was a Pyrenean stronghold, 12

miles east of Foix, the last refuge of the Cathar heretics. Raymond VII of Toulouse

esieged it in 1241 but abandoned the attempt. Its garrison of 20 knights and 100

sergeants was not Cathar but attacked inquisitors operating in the neighbourhood at

Avignonet in 1242. A new siege was undertaken in May 1243 by Hugh des Arcis,

seneschal of Carcassonne, for St Louis. The citizens defended the place vigorously,

women operating throwing engines. For the besiegers the bishop of Albi operated a

trebuchet. A traitor let in the crusaders, and a group of Basques scaled the difficult

approach to knife the guards on duty. They took a tower but the garrison held on for

several weeks before surrendering on 2 March. The heretics were given the option o

The crusades, 1095–1500 197

recanting or being burned. On 16 March, 200 were executed on a huge pyre at the foot o

the castle.

NICAEA (IZNIK), SIEGE OF, 1097

The Christians on the First Crusade besieged Nicaea (now in Turkey) from 6 May, as

their first major target. It had been taken from Byzantium by the Turks after Manzikert.

Kilij Arslan sultan of Rum held Nicaea but was absent when the crusaders arrived. He

returned with a Seljuk relief force but was defeated on 21 May and withdrew. Heads o

captive Turks were shot over the walls to demoralise the defence. The crusaders built

siege engines and dug mines. A belfry was destroyed by rocks thrown from the walls. A

Byzantine fleet aided the crusaders, attacking from the lake. On 19 June the garrison

surrendered to the Byzantines in preference to the crusaders. Kilij Arslan’s wife was

captured trying to escape and sent to Constantinople.

zv190

NICOPOLIS (NIKOPOL/NIGBOLU), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 12

SEPTEMBER 1396

Victory by sultan Bayezit I over the crusade of Nicopolis. With Constantinople under

threat from the Turks a mixed army of western Christians advanced to Nicopolis (now in

Bulgaria) on the Danube, which they besieged. The allies included French, Burgundians,

Wallachians, Poles, Germans and Hungarians. The leaders included John the Fearless o

Burgundy and the French Marshal Boucicaut. Bayezit came to the relief. Sigismund o

Hungary withdrew rather than fight the large Turkish army. The remaining crusaders

charged into a disguised trap of stakes and horse archers and were defeated. Nicopolis

diverted Ottoman attention from Constantinople for a while.

RAMLEH, BATTLES OF, 4 SEPTEMBER 1101, 17 MAY 1102, 27 AUGUST 1105

Ramleh, west of Jerusalem, was taken from the Muslims on the First Crusade in 1099.

In 1101 Baldwin I of Jerusalem defeated the Fatimid Egyptians under Saad al-Dawlah.

The Egyptians headed for Jerusalem but were caught by surprise at dawn. The Christians

were in six divisions. Mounted charges won the battle, notably that of the reserve under

Baldwin on his horse Gazelle. In 1102 Baldwin was defeated by the Egyptians under

Sharaf al-Ma’ali. The Egyptians approached from Ascalon. Baldwin entered Ramleh for

refuge and escaped at night. The Muslims attacked in the morning and took Ramleh,

slaughtering those within, including Stephen-Henry count of Blois. He had escaped from

Antioch during the First Crusade and returned west. Now he came back to the Holy Land

and met his death. Ironically he is usually seen as a coward. In 1105 Baldwin gained his

revenge at Ramleh on a Sunday against invading Egyptians under Sena al-Mulk with

allies from Damascus. The Patriarch of Jerusalem was with Baldwin, bearing the True

Cross, and blessed the Christians before battle. A charge by Baldwin decided the day.

Sena al-Mulk escaped. The battle ended the Fatimid attempt to conquer Palestine.

TIBERIAS, SIEGE OF, 1187

The siege of Tiberias by Saladin led to Hattin. A force besieged Tiberias for Saladin

from 2 July. The Lord of Tiberias was Count Raymond of Tripoli whose wife Eschiva

was within the walls. The town was stormed but the citadel held out. King Guy with

Raymond advanced to the relief but were defeated at Hattin. The garrison surrendered on

5 July. Eschiva was permitted to go to Tripoli.

TOULOUSE, SIEGES OF, 1211, 1217–18

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 198

Toulouse was the chief town in the region noted for Cathar heresy, a target for the

Albigensian Crusade. It was Count Raymond VI’s capital. Simon de Montfort the Elder

esieged Toulouse from 16 June 1211 though he could not blockade the whole

circumference. A storm attempt failed and the siege was abandoned on 29 June. In 1217

Simon made a second attempt after Raymond took refuge in Toulouse in September. The

defenders made sorties. In May 1218 flooding proved more uncomfortable for the

attackers than the defenders. Simon’s attack from the River Garonne failed. On 25 June a

stone from a defending trebuchet shot by women hit Simon on the head and killed him.

The Capetian monarchy took over the attack on the heretics and benefited most in the

long run.

TUNIS, SIEGE OF, 1270

St Louis’ second crusade aimed against Tunis where Emir Mustansir was expected to

convert to Christianity. The Christians camped at Carthage near Tunis on 18 July. They

found that the emir had no intention of converting or surrendering. Joinville wrote ‘I was

not there, thank God’. Louis, along with many of his men, became ill probably with

typhus, dying on 25 August. His brother Charles made terms with the emir on 1

November.

zv191

TYRE, SIEGES OF, 1111–12, 1124

The first major siege of Tyre by the Christians of the kingdom of Jerusalem failed.

Tyre was almost an island, with three encircling walls and a narrow approach from land.

Rocks protected the sea approach. It was held by the Fatimid Egyptians. Baldwin

undertook the siege from November 1111. He lacked aid from sea and the Byzantine fleet

gave little aid. A relief attempt under Toghtekin of Damascus succeeded. The siege was

abandoned in April 1112. The second siege was undertaken by Baldwin II from 15

February 1124. The Turks from Damascus disputed control of Tyre from 1112 and came

to take over the defence under Toghtekin in 1124. A Venetian fleet arrived to blockade

from the sea. Relief attempts from Egypt and Damascus failed. The Christians operated

throwing engines from belfries, one with five platforms. An Armenian Christian expert

was paid to aim the engines. The Muslims used a device with hooks to catch the end o

rams and turn them over. They shot Greek Fire at the Christians. Tyre surrendered on 7

July, when each side was allowed to view the other’s fortifications. The Christians now

held all the main ports on the Syrian coast. Tyre resisted an attempt against it by Saladin

and was one of the last Christian strongholds to surrender, on 29 May 1291.

VARNA, SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1444

From November 1444 a crusade under Ladislas III of Hungary and Poland with the

general John Hunyadi of Transylvania besieged the Black Sea port of Varna (in Bulgaria)

during the Varna Crusade aimed at Constantinople. A Venetian fleet was supposed to

take the crusaders on from Varna but failed to arrive. Varna was held by the Ottomans.

Sultan Murad II came to relieve it. On 10 November the smaller crusading army was

defeated. Ladislas was killed and Hunyadi escaped. It was not decisive but the siege and

the crusade were abandoned. It was one of the last hopes of saving Constantinople from

the Turks.

zv192

The crusades, 1095–1500 199

Joan of Arc directing operations

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 200