Bradbury Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare

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PART I

Generals and leaders, A–Z

ABD-AL-RĀHMAN III, AL-NĀSIR (THE VICTORIOUS), CALIPH OF

CÓRDOBA (889–961)

Umayyad Emir of Córdoba from 912, Caliph from 929. This was the start of an

independent Iberian Muslim state—al-Andalus. From a reduced territory around Córdoba

he expanded his power over much of Iberia, uniting the Muslims and taking tribute from

Christian powers. His rule is seen as the golden age of the caliphate. His successes

included the taking of Seville, Beja and Toledo. He defeated León at Pamplona in 920.

He suffered defeat by Ramiro II of León at Simancas and Alhandega in 939, and at

Talavera in 951, but lost little territory. His interests moved to North Africa where he

captured Ceuta in 931 and Tangier in 951. He developed a Mediterranean navy. He was

succeeded by his son al-Hakim II.

ABŪ YŪSUF YA’QŪB, AL-MANSŪR, ALMOHAD CALIPH (d.1199)

Caliph from 1184. He assumed al-Mansūr (the victorious) as a title. His reign in North

Africa began with a six-year civil war, which allowed the Christian

Reconquista

in Iberia

to advance. Abū Yūsuf took an army to Iberia in 1190. In 1191 he recovered Silves from

Portugal. In 1195 he defeated Alfonso VIII of Castile at Alarcos. He besieged Madrid in

1197 but failed to take it. On his return to Marakesh in 1198 he fell ill and died in January

1199. He was succeeded by his son al-Nāsir.

ADHÉMAR (OF MONTEIL) OF LE PUY (d.1098)

Adhémar of Monteil, bishop of Le Puy, was the religious leader of the First Crusade.

His ancestors were the Counts of Valentinois. In 1086 he made a pilgrimage to

Jerusalem. He was the first to take the crusading vow at Clermont-Ferrand in 1095 and

was appointed by Urban II to lead the crusaders. Le Puy was the assembly point for the

Crusade. Although the People’s Crusade ignored this and went ahead, most knightly

leaders brought their men to Le Puy. Adhémar travelled with Raymond of Toulouse and

helped give unity to the Crusade. Before reaching Constantinople Adhémar was wounded

and captured by Pechenegs, though released when found to be a bishop. He died on 1

August of disease (probably typhoid) at Antioch, a loss to the Crusade’s unity.

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AEGIDIUS (d.464)

Roman general for Emperor Majorian, a member of the Syagrii family, Gallo-Roman

aristocrats near Lyons. At Soissons he established a Roman enclave, which Gregory o

Tours called a kingdom. He defeated Odoacer at Angers, and the Visigoths at Orléans,

463. He favoured an alliance with the Vandals, possibly the reason for his death by

oisoning. He was succeeded by his son Syagrius. Through Aegidius the region became

the land of the Franks rather than the Goths.

AELLE, KING OF SUSSEX

According to the

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

he led the south coast invasion in 477 with

his sons, Cymen, Wlencing and Cissa. They landed at

Cymenes ora

(Cymen’s landing

lace), probably Selsey Bill. In 485 Aelle defeated the British at Mearcredesburna on an

unidentified river frontier. They were driven into the forest of the Weald. Aelle captured

the stronghold of Anderida (Pevensey) in 491 and slaughtered all within. He established

the kingdom of the South Saxons (Sussex) and was named first

Bretwalda

(wide ruler),

showing his prominent position in the early invasion period. He may have ruled an area

greater than Sussex. Several Sussex names derive from his sons, including Chichester

from Cissa—renaming the old Roman town—and Lancing from Wlencing.

AETHELRED II, UNRAED (THE UNREADY) (c.966–1016)

King of England from 978, son of Edgar. He became king at the age of about 12 when

his half-

rother, Edward (the Martyr), was murdered at Corfe possibly with the

connivance of Aethelred’s mother. Aethelred’s second marriage in 1002 was to Emma,

daughter of Richard I duke of Normandy, a continental alliance with far-reaching

consequences. The nickname ‘Unraed’ (‘badly advised’ rather than ‘unready’) was

applied after his death and was a pun on his name Aethelred, which meant ‘well advised’.

His failures came largely from Scandinavian threats, including invasions by Óla

Tryggvason, Thorkell the Tall and Sweyn Forkbeard. Ólaf won the Battle of Maldon in

991. Aethelred has been widely criticised for paying danegeld on five occasions, but

these tributes bought time. He did combat the Scandinavians at sea. Internal opposition

from Eadric Streona weakened England against outside attack. Aethelred was accused o

attempting to kill all the Danes in England in the St Brice’s Day Massacre of 1002,

though his aims were probably more restricted. Nevertheless the act provoked

Scandinavian retaliation. Sweyn Forkbeard invaded England in 1013 and forced

Aethelred into exile in Normandy. He returned on Sweyn’s death but soon died, leaving

his son Edmund to dispute the kingdom with Cnut.

AETHELSTAN (ATHELSTAN) (894–939)

King of England from 924 (crowned 925), on the death of his father Edward the Elder.

He continued to rule all the English. His father’s base was Wessex but Aethelstan was

rought up in Mercia. The kingdom of England was practically completed by his northern

conquests. He ruled Northumbria, Wessex and Mercia and took over the Viking kingdom

of York. In 934 he invaded Scotland. At Brunanburh in 937 he overcame his northern

enemies—the Scots, Irish and men of Strathclyde. Under him the Wye became the

Anglo-Welsh frontier. Aethelstan established power over British Cornwall. He had

continental interests and his fleet intervened in Francia. He issued four law codes. He had

neither wife nor children and died on 27 October.

AËTIUS (c.390–454)

A general during the collapse of the western Roman Empire, sometimes called ‘the last

of the Romans’. He was the main power in Gaul after his victory over his rival Boniface.

He halted Visigothic expansion towards the Rhône in 436. He used barbarian troops in

his armies, including the Huns, defeating the Burgundians who

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had established

themselves on the Rhine. They moved instead to Burgundy, between Lyons and Geneva.

In alliance with Burgundians, Visgoths and Franks, he defeated Attila the Hun in 451 at

the Catalaunian Plains, keeping the Huns out of Gaul. In 454 he was assassinated through

Valentinian III. His followers in turn killed the emperor in 455.

AFONSO ENRIQUES, KING OF PORTUGAL (1110–85)

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Ruler of the county of Portugal and its first king—son and successor of Henry o

Burgundy count of Portugal, who died in 1112. He overcame the hostile force of his

mother Teresa. He won victories over the Muslims, notably at Ourique in 1139. In 1140

he declared himself King of Portugal, recognised by Castile in 1143. By 1147 he

extended his authority south to the Tagus. He took Lisbon in 1147 with aid from the

Second Crusade. He was captured by the Muslims at Badajoz 1169 but was later released.

He captured Santarem in 1171. In 1184 Yūsuf invaded Portugal but his death in that year

ended the attempt. Afonso died on 6 December and was succeeded by his son Sancho I.

AISTULF, KING OF THE LOMBARDS (d.756)

King from 749, he contributed to making the Lombard Laws, including that men

should possess arms appropriate to their wealth. In 751 he seized the Exarchate o

Ravenna from the Byzantines. Aistulf posed a threat to the papacy, invading the duchy o

Rome in 752. He was forced to accept peace but broke the agreed terms. In 754 Pope

Stephen II travelled to Francia seeking aid against him. Pepin the Short, by the Donation

of Pepin, promised to restore what the Lombards had taken. In return the pope made

Pepin and his sons patricians and recognised the dynastic change in Francia from

Merovingians to Carolingians. Carloman, brother of Pepin the Short, represented the

Lombards in negotiations but was imprisoned for his trouble. Aistulf refused to yield to

Pepin’s demands and the latter invaded Lombardy to fulfil his promise to the pope. The

Lombards were defeated in the Valley of Susa in 755 and the Franks besieged Pavia

where Aistulf took refuge. He agreed terms while Pavia was still holding out but broke

his promises within the year. Pepin with Tassilo of Bavaria invaded again in 756. Pavia

was besieged and Aistulf surrendered, dying shortly afterwards when thrown from his

horse against a tree while hunting. He left no heir. Pepin the Short initiated the process

that would lead to Frankish rule of Lombardy.

ALARIC I, KING OF THE VISIGOTHS (c.370–410)

King from 395 who sacked Rome. He established authority over the Visigoths in the

Balkans, acting as commander for the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I, fighting in the

victory at Frigidius in 394. He defeated the usurper Eugenius but rebelled against

Theodosius and moved west with his people, invading Italy in 401. He was defeated by

the Roman commander Stilicho at Pollentia in 402, making peace in 407. Alaric was

disappointed not to receive greater recognition within the Roman Empire. When Stilicho

was executed by the Western Emperor Honorius in 408, Alaric rebelled again. His people

caused devastation in Italy and attacked Rome, which he besieged three times, taking it in

410—seen as a vital moment in the collapse of the Western Empire. It was the first time

that outsiders had taken the city since the Gauls in 390 BC. Alaric planned to invade

Sicily and Africa but storms destroyed his fleet. He died at Cosenza and was buried in the

bed of the River Busentus.

AL-ASHRAF, SULTAN OF EGYPT (d.1293)

Al-Malik al-Ashraf Khalil was the son of Qalawun, whom he succeeded in 1290 as

Mamluke Sultan. Qalawun on his deathbed made him promise to continue attacking the

Christians. Al-Ashraf overcame a

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alace plot and led the final assault on the crusading

state, besieging Acre in 1291. He brought a large army and a hundred siege engines,

camping opposite the Tower of the Legate. Acre fell in less than a month and was razed

Generals and leaders, A–Z 5

to the ground. The few remaining Christian strongholds soon surrendered or were taken.

Al-Ashraf made advances in Armenia in 1292. He was murdered on 13 December by his

own emirs, fearing his ambitions. He was succeeded by his son al-

asir who brought

trophies from Acre to decorate his father’s tomb in Cairo.

ALBERT (ALBRECHT) II, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (1397–1439)

King of the Romans from 1438, establishing Habsburg rule of the Holy Roman Empire

until its collapse in 1806 (with a gap 1742–65). The last Luxembourg emperor died in

1438. Albert had shown himself an able military commander. He was made Margrave o

Moravia by Emperor Sigismund, whose daughter he married. He shared rule of Austria

with his brother Leopold. Leopold was killed at Sempach against the Swiss. Albert duke

of Austria was elected emperor at Frankfurt. He succeeded Sigismund as king in Hungary

and Bohemia. His reign was disturbed by the break-up of imperial power and the separate

claims of Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. Albert died on 27 October having become ill

campaigning against the Turks in Hungary. Albert’s posthumous son, Ladislas,

succeeded to Bohemia.

ALBOIN, KING OF THE LOMBARDS (d. c.572)

He led the Lombards from Pannonia (Hungary) to invade and settle Italy from 568. He

esieged Pavia while other Lombards attacked the Franks. It was three years before Pavia

surrendered. Alboin defeated the Ostrogoths and married Rosamond, daughter of the

King of the Gepids. He established the kingdom of Lombardy in northern Italy, with his

capital at Verona. His wife, previously made to drink from the skull of her murdered

father, poisoned him in revenge and then married her fellow conspirator.

ALBRET, CHARLES D’ (d.1415)

Leader of the French army at Agincourt, Constable of France. In 1368 his father, the

Lord of Albret in Gascony, appealed against the authority of the Black Prince to the King

of France. Charles’ mother was Margaret of Bourbon, related to the Valois kings. He

fought for Charles VI at Roosebeke in 1382 and in 1390 went on crusade to Tunis. He

inherited the Albret lordship in 1401. He married Marie de Sully. Charles opposed the

English in the south, extending French control to the Dordogne by 1405. He was

appointed Constable in 1403. He advanced from Poitou and captured all the fortresses

south of Saintonge. After 1407 he switched to the Orléanist party and lost his position as

Master of Crossbowmen and Constable. He turned to Henry IV of England for aid. In

1412 he was besieged in Bourges. In 1413 he regained the Constableship and was made

castellan of Melun. He was with the royal army that besieged Compiègne in 1414. When

Henry V invaded Normandy Charles pursued Henry V. When the French attacked at

Agincourt Charles commanded the French van with Marshal Boucicaut. He was killed in

the battle and buried in the Friary Church at Hesdin. His son Charles succeeded to the

lordship.

ALEXANDER II, KING OF SCOTS (1198–1249)

King from 1214 on the death of his father, William the Lion. Alexander invaded

England against John in alliance with English rebels and Louis of France. Alexander won

territory in the north but was beaten in 1216 near London. In 1222 he took Argyll from its

Viking rulers. He made peace with England, marrying Henry III’s sister Joan. In 1237, by

the Treaty of York, he abandoned claims to Northumberland, Cumberland and

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Westmorland, defining the Anglo-Scottish frontier. He sought to

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win the Western Isles

ut died on the island of Kerrera in Oban Bay on 8 July and was succeeded by his son

Alexander III.

ALEXANDER III, KING OF SCOTS (1241–86)

King from 1249 on the death of his father Alexander II though he only assumed power

in 1260. His mother was Margaret de Coucy, Alexander II’s second wife. There were

divisions during the minority between the Comyns and the Durwards. Alexander

continued efforts to win the Western Isles and the Isle of Man from Norway. He won the

Battle of Largs in 1263 and Norway submitted in 1266 by the Treaty of Perth. Alexander

married first Margaret daughter of Henry III and then Yolande de Dreux. The reign was

later seen as a golden age. Three of his children died in the 1280s and Alexander died on

19 March when thrown from his horse, leaving no male successor.

ALEXIUS I COMNENUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (1048–1118)

Emperor from 1081, restoring much imperial territory. He was emperor during the

First Crusade and the hero of his daughter Anna Comnena’s

Alexiad

. His wife was Irene.

He commanded armies before becoming emperor and was an able diplomat. He

succeeded through a coup against Nikephorus III. He faced attacks on Byzantine territory

y the Italian Normans under Robert Guiscard, including an attempt on Durazzo that was

held off. He defeated the Pechengs at Levunium. He employed Turkish mercenaries and

allied with Venice, to whom he granted privileges. Alexius recovered territory in Europe.

He rebuilt the navy, regaining Crete and Cyprus. He manoeuvred the Franks on the First

Crusade through his territory and into Asia Minor. As a result of the Crusade’s success he

recovered much of Anatolia from the Turks. He received some recognition from the new

crusading states. His son John II succeeded.

ALEXIUS IV ANGELUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.1204)

Emperor during the Fourth Crusade. He sought aid from the west for his father, the

deposed and blinded Isaac II. He attended a conference that led to the Fourth Crusade.

When the crusaders attacked Constantinople in 1203, Alexius III fled. Isaac II was

released from prison, and his son Alexius IV became co-emperor. He broke his promises

to the crusaders and failed to destroy the Venetian fleet. Murzuphlus, son-in-law o

Alexius III, led a rebellion in Constantinople. Alexius IV was garrotted and Murzuphlus

became Alexius V. The crusaders captured Constantinople and set up the Latin Empire.

ALEXIUS V DUKAS (MURZUPHLUS/BLACK-BROWED), BYZANTINE

EMPEROR (d.1205)

Took power during the attack on Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. Alexius III fled

from the attackers. The nickname Murzuphlus referred to his bushy black eyebrows. He

rebelled against Alexius IV and Isaac II. Alexius IV was put to death. Murzuphlus took

the throne as Alexius V in 1204. He led the defence against a renewed Frankish attack

ut, when the Franks broke in, he fled to Thrace. He married Eudocia, daughter o

Alexius III. He quarrelled with his father-in-law who had him blinded. He was captured

y the Franks, taken to Constantinople, and thrown to his death from the column o

Theodosius.

ALFONSO I, EL BATTALADOR (THE BATTLER), KING OF ARAGÓN (1073–

1134)

Generals and leaders, A–Z 7

King of Aragón and Navarre from 1104, succeeding his brother Pedro I. He married

Urraca of Castile in 1109 but the marriage failed. Alfonso may have been impotent. He

defeated Urraca’s troops at Sepúlveda in 1111. His efforts advanced the

Reconquista

and

made Aragón a major Iberian power. He conquered the Ebro Valley and captured

Zaragoza in 1118. From 1125 he raided

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south against Valencia, Granada and Málaga. He

established Extremadura on the frontier, organised in new military zones. In 1133 he

captured Mequinenza but was defeated by the Muslims at Fraga in 1134. He died on 7

September, when his lands were divided.

ALFONSO III, THE GREAT, KING OF ASTURIAS (d.910)

King from 866 of the small northern Iberian kingdom of Oviedo. He advanced the

Christian frontier, defeating the Muslims of Toledo in 874. He took over Zamora and

Toro on the Duero. His power extended westwards to Coimbra. His name is attached to a

chronicle of early medieval Spain. He was succeeded in turn by his sons García and

Ordoño II.

ALFONSO VI, KING OF CASTILE AND LEÓN (1030–1109)

King from 1065, initially in León, son and successor of Ferdinand I. He called himsel

King of León and later Emperor of all Spain. He defeated his brother Sancho II and took

over Castile in 1070. Sancho died in 1072. Alfonso married first Agnes daughter of the

Duke of Aquitaine, then Constance of Burgundy and four other wives. El Cid

commanded his army with success before he quarrelled with the king and was exiled in

1081. Alfonso captured Toledo in 1085, a major step in the

Reconquista,

but was

defeated by Yūsuf at Zalaka in 1086. In 1093 he took over Santarem, Lisbon and Cintra.

He died on 30 June and was succeeded by his daughter Urraca.

ALFONSO VII, KING OF CASTILE AND LEÓN (1105–57)

King of Galicia from 1112, of Castile and León from 1126, son of Urraca. He married

Berengaria daughter of the Count of Barcelona. He imposed his power on Aragón and

avarre. He recognised the independence of his cousin Afonso Enriques in Portugal in

1143. Alfonso invaded the southern Muslim territories, taking Zaragoza in 1134. He

claimed to be Emperor of Spain in 1135. He took Córdoba in 1144 but lost it again. He

was defeated and killed at Muradel on 21 August. His lands were divided between his

sons, Sancho III in Castile and Ferdinand II in León.

ALFONSO VIII, KING OF CASTILE (1155–1214)

King from 1158, son of Sancho III. His minority was troubled by civil war until 1169.

He married Eleanor daughter of Henry II of England. He was defeated at Alarcos by the

Muslims in 1195. He also fought off invasions by León and Navarre. He conquered the

Basque region. He formed an alliance of Christian powers, agreeing boundaries with

Aragón in 1179. He captured Cuenca in 1177. He was a commander at Las Navas de

Tolosa in 1212 and Fabraegen in 1213. He patronised the Order of Santiago. He was

succeeded by his son Enrique I.

ALFONSO X, EL SABIO (THE WISE), KING OF CASTILE AND LEÓN (1221–

84)

King from 1252, son and successor of Ferdinand III. His attempt to introduce

succession by the eldest son and his descendants caused civil war with his younger son

Sancho. His daughter Eleanor married Edward I of England. Alfonso was known as ‘the

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Wise’ from his intellectual interests; he was a great patron, a poet and a supporter o

universities. He claimed the Holy Roman Empire through his mother Beatrice of Swabia

and was elected in 1257, abandoning the claim in 1275. He captured Cádiz in 1262 and

Cartagena in 1263. Following agreement with Jaime I of Aragón he invaded Granada in

1265. He conquered Murcia in 1266. Through his son Sancho he was declared deposed in

1282. Alfonso died on 4 April and, against his wishes, Sancho IV succeeded.

ALFONSO XI, KING OF CASTILE AND LEÓN (1310–49)

King from 1312, son and successor of Ferdinand IV. The minority was disturbed

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civil war until 1325. Alfonso overcame this and advanced the

Reconquista

. In alliance

with Portugal he defeated the Muslims at Salado in 1340. He won at the River Palmones

in 1343. He captured Algeciras in 1344. He died of the Black Death on 26 March when

attempting to recover Gibraltar, which the Muslims had recaptured earlier in his reign.

ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF WESSEX (849–89)

King from 871, when the Vikings were threatening to take over all the English

kingdoms. Only Wessex survived. The fifth son of King Aethelwulf, Alfred succeeded

his brother Aethelred I (865–71). After defeat at Reading, Alfred won his first important

victory at Ashdown in Berkshire. He led the army into action for his brother who was

raying. In 878 Alfred was surprised by the Danes at Chippenham and retreated to

Athelney in Somerset marshland. A later tale had him burning the cakes of a peasant

woman. He eventually raised a force and advanced against the Danes. Alfred’s most

famous victory was at Edington in 878, where he besieged and defeated the enemy.

England was then divided and Guthrum agreed to conversion, confirmed by the Peace o

Wedmore. Alfred relieved Rochester in 885 and took London in 886. According to the

nglo-Saxon Chronicle

he was accepted as king by all the English claiming

independence from the Danes, a vital step towards a unified kingdom of England. Alfred

reorganised the army on a rotation basis with forces on call throughout the year. He

organised a fleet, seen as the beginning of an English navy. Alfred fortified strongholds

or burhs throughout his lands as garrison centres/most became urban centres. Alfred was

noted for cultural and literary interests. He died on 26 October and was buried at

Winchester. His son Edward the Elder succeeded. Alfred’s successors provided the first

kings of England.

AL-KAMIL, AL-MALIK, SULTAN OF EGYPT (1178–1238)

Al-Malik al-Kamil was nephew of Saladin and son of al-Adil, succeeding as Ayyubid

Sultan in 1218 when his brother al-Mu’azzam inherited Damascus. Al-Kamil led troops

for his father. Al-Adil reunited the lands ruled by Saladin. Al-Kamil opposed the Fifth

Crusade, recovering Damietta after its loss to the crusaders. In 1229 al-Kamil agreed a

treaty with Frederick II (HRE), making concessions that were unpopular with his own

eople. He took over Baghdad, capturing Damascus in 1238. He died on 8 March at

Damascus, leading to civil war between his sons.

AL-MANSŪR (ABŪ AMIR MUHAMMAD IBN ABĪ AMIR AL-MAAFIRI) (940–

1002)

Regent of the Caliphate of Córdoba from 976 on the death of al-Hakim II when he

became vizier for Hishām II. He was the son of a scholar, becoming tutor to Hishām and

lover of the Queen Mother (the Basque Subh or Aurora). He ruled the caliphate,

Generals and leaders, A–Z 9

commanding the Umayyad forces against the Christians. He employed Berber

mercenaries. In 981 he conquered León, winning at Simancas and capturing Zamora. He

sacked Barcelona in 985 and Santiago de Compostella in 997. In North Africa he

captured Fez in 998 and suppressed rebellion in Morocco. The name al-Mansūr means

‘the victorious’. He died at Medinaceli after a victorious raid against Castile.

ALP ARSLAN, SELJUK SULTAN (d.1072)

Sultan of the Seljuk Turks from 1063, presenting a new threat to Byzantium. He was

the son of Chagrai Beg, whom he succeeded as Governor of Khurasan in 1058. He

succeeded his uncle Toghril Beg as Sultan. He defeated the Byzantines in the significant

Battle of Manzikert 1071. His long moustaches had to be tied behind his back when he

hunted. He invaded Armenia in 1064. He defeated the Byzantines at Media in 1069 but

was beaten at Heraklea. He captured the border

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town of Manzikert but failed to take

Edessa. At Manzikert in 1071 he decisively defeated Romanus IV, who was captured

though later released on terms. Alp Arslan captured Nicaea and Antioch, winning most o

Anatolia and Syria. He captured Jerusalem from the Fatimids in 1071, provoking the

Christian crusading movement. Alp Arslan invaded Turkestan, defeating Yakub at

Berzem 1072. Yakub was captured, but killed Alp Arslan when brought before him.

Alp’s son Malik Shah succeeded.

AMALASUNTHA, QUEEN OF THE OSTROGOTHS (d.535)

Ruler after the death of her father, Theoderic the Great, on behalf of her son Athalaric,

until his death, 534. Her control included the conduct of military affairs. She continued to

have power during the reign of her cousin, Theodehad, but was finally put to death on his

orders, at the behest of nobles seeking revenge for deaths she had ordered when in power.

She was imprisoned and strangled. Her death was the excuse used by Justinian for his

invasion of Italy.

AMALRIC I, KING OF JERUSALEM (1136–74)

Son of Fulk king of Jerusalem and Melisende; brother and in 1162 successor to

Baldwin III. He was Count of Jaffa and Ascalon. He married Agnes of Courtenay

daughter of Joscelyn II of Edessa. He strengthened the crown’s legal position by issuing

the

Assise sur la ligece,

insisting on direct allegiance from lesser vassals. He invaded

Fatimid Egypt three times. The Syrian Muslims under Nur ed-Din, Shirkuh and Saladin

sought to block his efforts. The Egyptians, fearing domination, allied with Amalric to

besiege the Syrian camp—though without success. The alliance was renewed in 1167,

leading to the capture of Alexandria in 1167 and Bilbeis in 1168. When the Syrians won

Egypt, Amalric was isolated. He allied with Byzantium and led an expedition against

Egypt in 1169. He besieged Damietta but withdrew. On the death of Nur-ed-Din, Amalric

arranged for an attack on Egypt by a Norman Sicilian fleet. The plans were dropped when

Amalric caught dysentery and died on 11 July. After his death the power of the kingdom

weakened. His son succeeded as Baldwin IV and his daughter Sibylla was mother to

Baldwin V.

AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS

A leader of Romano-Britons and precursor of Arthur, who resisted the Anglo-Saxon

advance in the 5th century. According to Gildas he was the victor of the Battle of Mount

Badon. The name is Latin but otherwise little is known of him. According to Gildas he

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