Bradbury Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare

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LEGNANO, BATTLE OF, 29 MAY 1176

Defeat of Frederick Barbarossa by the Lombard League, the climax of Frederick’s fifth

Italian expedition. Frederick assembled at Como against Milan. Legnano is 15 miles

north-west of Milan. Henry the Lion did not answer Frederick’s summons. Some o

Frederick’s troops were employed elsewhere in Italy. Frederick had a small cavalry force

and rashly accepted battle against a larger, better-

alanced Lombard army. His charge

was repulsed by pikemen and dismounted knights, holding steady round the

carroccio

. It

was an early example of success for good infantry against heavy cavalry. New Lombard

troops arrived on the flank. Frederick was unhorsed and for a time believed dead, but

escaped to Pavia leaving behind shield, lance and treasure. He made peace with the

apacy and recognised the liberties of the Italian communes. Afterwards Frederick took

revenge on Henry the Lion.

LENZEN, BATTLE OF, 4 SEPTEMBER 929

A force for Henry I (HRE) defeated the Slavic Redarii who had revolted near the Elbe.

Saxon success depended on their possession of a small cavalry force, which the Slavs

lacked. Afterwards the Redarii paid tribute and converted to Christianity.

LIEGNITZ (WAHLSTATT), BATTLE OF, 9 APRIL 1241

Defeat for the Teutonic Knights by Mongols under Batu. The smaller of two Mongol

armies raided through Poland and sacked Kraców. The Knights fought in alliance with

Poles and Silesians. Duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia commanded the Christians, his

infantry in four battles. The Mongols used horse archers in a feigned flight, drawing the

Christians into a trap. Mongol cavalry then attacked. Duke Henry was killed. The

Mongols invaded Silesia but were blocked by the Bohemians and retreated to Hungary

where Batu defeated Béla IV of Hungary at Mohi on the Sajó. A crusade was preached

against the Mongols. Liegnitz ended the furthest advances of both the Mongols and the

Teutonic Knights.

MARCHFELD, THE (DÜRNKRUT/ STILLFRIED), BATTLE OF, 28 AUGUST

1278

Defeat of Ottokar II of Bohemia by Rudolf I Habsburg and Ladislas IV of Hungary.

The Marchfeld is near Stillfried and Dürnkrut, by the Danube. Ottokar invaded Austria

and camped near Stillfried, allied with Poles and German mercenaries. Rudolf was with

his reserve. The conflict opened with Hungarian horse archers, for Rudolf, attacking the

enemy flank. Infantry is not mentioned in the accounts. Ottokar was killed in flight. The

Marchfeld ended the expansion of Bohemia and helped establish the Habsburgs.

MERSEBURG (RIADE/ALLSTEDT), BATTLE OF, 15 MARCH 933

Defeat of the Magyars by Henry I (HRE) at an unidentified site near Merseburg in

northern Thuringia. The Magyars threatened western Europe. Henry refused to pay

tribute, returning a dog without ears and tail. He blocked the invaders’ route, placing light

horse to the fore to mask the heavy cavalry, which made a successful charge.

MILAN, SIEGE OF 1158–62

During Frederick Barbarossa’s second Italian expedition. Frederick could not surround

the city but used three lines of men to shoot in missiles, starving Milan into submission.

All those between 14 and 70 had to take an oath of loyalty to him. Milan was the leader

of the Lombard League, opposing imperial authority. It revolted again in 1159. Frederick

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was occupied at the siege of Crema, which Milan tried to aid. He returned to Milan in

September 1161 with reinforcements. He laid waste the surrounding area to disrupt

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food

supplies. Five Milanese captives were blinded. A sixth lost his nose but kept his eyes to

lead the others home. The city surrendered on 1 March 1162. Frederick promised mercy

but destroyed much of the city.

MORAT (MÜRTEN), BATTLE OF, 22 JUNE 1476

Defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgundy by the Swiss. Charles advanced towards

Berne, making a diversion to besiege Morat on its lake, a town recently taken by the

Swiss, who now attempted relief. Their force consisted mainly of halberdiers and

ikemen but also cavalry from Lorraine and Germany. Charles had a barricaded position

with a camp outside. The Swiss made a surprise attack through a wood. They were hit by

artillery, and some Swiss cavalrymen were cut in half by the shot, their lower halves

remaining on horseback. The Burgundians broke and thousands were slaughtered, only

the left wing escaping.

MORGARTEN (MORTGARTEN), 15 NOVEMBER 1315

Defeat of Duke Leopold of Austria by the Swiss near Lake Egeri. The Swiss supported

Lewis of Bavaria against Frederick of Habsburg to rule Germany. The latter’s brother,

Leopold, sought revenge. He advanced towards Schwyz by a narrow path between the

mountain and the lake at Morgarten to find his way blocked by a stone barrier. The Swiss

hurled down boulders on the trapped enemy. Hidden Swiss closed off the rear. Swiss

halberdiers demolished the Austrians. One source called it ‘a butchery’. The only escape

was into the lake, where many drowned. Leopold was one of the few to escape. This was

the first major victory by Swiss infantry over German knights. Lewis recognised the

Swiss confederation.

MÜHLDORF, BATTLE OF, 28 SEPTEMBER 1322

Defeat of Frederick of Habsburg duke of Austria by Lewis IV (HRE) after a divided

election for King of the Romans between them in 1314. Frederick tried a pincer

movement against Bavaria, the second force under his brother Leopold. King John o

Bohemia fought for Lewis. Frederick crossed the Inn when Lewis attacked. The battle

was fought mainly by cavalry, including Hungarian mounted archers for Frederick. A

flank attack by the burgrave of Nuremberg decided the issue. Frederick was captured and

ecame reconciled with Lewis. It was claimed Lewis ignored the laws of war by not

remaining on the site for three days. The victory established Lewis’ success, recognised

at Nuremberg in 1323.

NANCY, BATTLE OF, 5 JANUARY 1477

Final Swiss defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgundy. René II of Anjou, having

recovered his territories from Burgundy, was besieged by Charles at Nancy. The Swiss

advanced to aid René. Count Campobasso, leading Charles’ mercenaries, had once fought

for Anjou and now deserted. The Burgundians were outnumbered three to one. The

Burgundian position was between woods and the River Meurthe on the left. The battle

was fought amid snow and ice—conditions that suited the Swiss. René’s standard carried

an image of the Virgin. Charles’ artillery failed to stop a Swiss infantry advance. A flank

attack through the woods against Charles’ right decided the issue. The Swiss discharged

culverins in the attack. The Burgundians tried to retreat. Austrian cavalry pursued, joined

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y Campobasso. Charles was killed trying to cover the retreat. A Swiss halberd cut

through his helmet and skull. The body was found two days later in the frozen mud,

partly eaten by wolves. The main beneficiary was Louis XI of France.

PARMA, SIEGE OF, 1247–8

Conducted by Frederick II from 16 June. He was heading for Lyons when Parma

declared for the papacy and the Lombard League. He returned to besiege it, setting up

camp on the left bank of the Po and

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optimistically calling his settlement Vittoria

(Victory). He laid waste around but the blockade was only partial. Mantua sent a fleet to

assist Parma. Frederick failed to break in. The new leaders of Parma spread false reports

that relief was coming, to keep up spirits. Frederick’s force was depleted by other

demands. On 18 February 1248 he was defeated by a Parmesan sortie that broke into

Vittoria, seizing the imperial treasure and crown. Frederick was nearly captured. His

minister Taddeo da Suessa was taken, his hands cut off and he was left to die in prison.

The siege was abandoned.

SAAZ (SAAS/ŽATEC), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 2 NOVEMBER 1421

Victory for the Hussites under Žiška, settling the second anti-Hussite crusade. Two

forces invaded Bohemia from east and west. The German princes coming from the west

besieged Saaz. Žiška brought a relief force. He had sight in only one eye and now became

entirely blind.

ST JAKOB, BATTLE OF, 26 AUGUST 1444

Defeat for the Swiss by Armagnac écorcheurs for Charles VII of France, assisting

Frederick of Habsburg. The French were under Charles’ son, the Dauphin Louis (XI). A

lull in the Hundred Years’ War made troops available. The French invaded Switzerland.

The battle was fought by the River Birs near Basle. A small Swiss infantry army crossed

the river and attacked. They pushed back the French van but were surrounded by the

larger army, which then made cavalry charges. The Swiss retreated to the ruined leper

hospital of St Jakob. They held off cavalry but the French attacked with archers and

artillery from a distance. The Swiss killed over twice their number of French but were

wiped out by the bombardment. The French however retreated, not wishing to face

further Swiss troops. One reported he had ‘never seen or met men who resisted so

strongly or were so willing to sacrifice their lives’.

SEMPACH, BATTLE OF, 9 JULY 1386

Duke Leopold III of Habsburg, ruler of Swabia, was defeated by the Swiss. The Swiss

supported the Swabian League against Leopold. He invaded Swiss territory and was met

in Luzern. The Swiss stood on a slope near Hildisrieden by Lake Sempach, later

commemorated by a chapel. The Austrian van dismounted and fought on foot, seeking a

solution to Swiss infantry tactics. The Austrians had initial success but their heavy

armour made advance difficult. More Swiss arrived to attack from the flank. The

Austrians broke and fled. Leopold rode forward in order to save the day but was killed. It

was an important step towards Swiss independence. The legendary Arnold Winkelried is

supposed to have played an heroic part in the battle.

TANNENBERG (GRUNWALD), BATTLE OF, 15 JULY 1410

Defeat of the Teutonic Knights by allied Slav forces under Jagiello king of Poland and

Vitold grand duke of Lithuania, joined by Tatars and Bohemians under Žiška. The

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Knights were led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Tannenberg (now Grunwald) is

in northern Poland. The Knights crossed the River Drewenz and initiated battle despite

having the smaller force. The Knights stood with Tannenberg to their left and forest on

their right. They had cannons in the van but a thunderstorm wet the powder. In the centre

and on the right the Poles prevailed. The Knights had a wagon fort to the rear with

cannons. The Poles overran it. Von Jungingen was killed. The Knights lost Old Prussia.

They agreed the Treaty of Thorn in 1411, recognising Poland’s independence but keeping

their own lands. The defeat was a serious blow to the prestige of the Knights whose

decline followed.

VYŠEHRAD (WYSCHEBRAD), BATTLE OF, 1 NOVEMBER 1420

Defeat for Emperor Sigismund by Hussites under Žiška. The Heights of Vyšehrad are

near Prague. Sigismund besieged the

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garrison. The Hussites came from Prague against

him. It was the first major Hussite victory, causing the failure of the first anti-Hussite

crusade.

WEINSBERG, BATTLE OF, DECEMBER 1140

Defeat of Welf VI by Conrad III. Conrad deprived Henry the Proud of Bavaria and

Saxony. Henry died in 1139. Welf was the uncle of Henry the Proud and opposed the

grant of Bavaria to Leopold of Austria, Conrad’s half-

rother. The labels Guelf and

Ghibelline are said to originate from this conflict, from Welf and Weibling. Saxony

supported the Guelfs and Conrad invaded Saxony in 1140. In 1141 Conrad returned to

esiege Weinbsberg, which surrendered. He agreed to let the women go with whatever

they could carry. They took their husbands. In 1141 Leopold died and Conrad made an

agreement with the Saxons. The divisions within Germany persisted.

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Gentile Bellini,

Sultan Mehmet II,

1480

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The Byzantine Empire and eastern Europe, 400–

1453

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I:

Alexius I Comnenus, Alexius IV Angelus, Alexius V Dukas (Murzuphlus),

Alp Arslan, Andronicus I Comnenus, Andronicus II Palaeologus, Andronicus III

Palaeologus, Baldwin I, Baldwin II, Bardas Caesar, Bardas Phokas Caesar, Bardas

Phokas son of Leo, Bardas Sclerus, Basil I, Basil II the Bulgar Slayer, Bayezit,

Belisarius, Chosroes I, Chosroes II, Constantine I, Constantine V Copronymus,

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Constantine VIII, Constantine IX Monomachus,

Constantine XI Palaeologus, Grant (John), Heraclius, John I Tzimisces, John I de

Brienne, John II Comnenus, John III Dukas Vatatzes, John VI Cantacuzenus, John VII

Palaeologus, John VIII Palaeologus, Julian the Apostate, Justin II, Justinian I, Justinian

II, Krum, Leo V, Leo VI the Wise, Maniakes (George), Manuel I Comnenus, Manuel II

Palaeologus, Maurice, Mehmet II, Michael I Rhangabe, Michael II, Michael III, Michael

IV, Michael VIII Palaeologus, Murad II, Nikephorus II Phokas, Orhan, Othman, Phokas,

Roger de Flor, Romanus I Lecapenus, Romanus II Porphyogenitus, Romanus III Argyrus,

Romanus IV Diogenes, Stephen Dušan of Serbia, Symeon, Tamberlane, Theodore

Angelus Dukas Comnenus, Theodosius I the Great, Theodosius II, Walter de Brienne,

William de Champlitte, Zeno, Zoe Carbonopsina, Zoe Porphyrogenita.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Abydos 989, Adrianople 378, Arcadiopolis 823, 970, Chernomen 1371, Constantinople

1203–4, 1397–1402, 1422, 1453, Demetrias 1275, Kalamata 1415, Klokotnitsa 1230,

Kosedag 1243, Kosovo 1389, 1448, Kulikovo 1380, Kustendil 1330, Larissa 1083,

Levunium 1091, Manzikert 1071, Myriocephalum 1176, Nika Revolt 532, Pelagonia

1259, Pelekanos 1329, Phoenicus 655, Poimanenon 1204, 1224, Rovine 1395, Samosata

873, Spetsai 1263, Stilo 982, Struma (Kleidion) 1014, Thessalonika 1185, 1224, 1430,

Trajan’s Gate 986, Tricamarum 533, Versinicia 813, Yarmuk 636.

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OUTLINE OF EVENTS

The Byzantine Empire was the surviving eastern part of the ancient Roman Empire. The

history of the Eastern Empire began with the transfer of the capital from Rome to the

renamed Constantinople by Constantine the Great. His chosen site was that magnificent

setting between Europe and Asia protected by the Golden Horn to the north, the

Bosphorus to the east, the Hellespont to the west and the Sea of Marmara to the south.

The settlement was said to have been founded in c.600 BC by Greek colonists under

Byzas but it had remained insignificant until Constantine. The Romans took it over in 73

AD.

The Roman Empire was divided for convenience in ruling. By the 4th century the east

was more prosperous but endangered by Persia to the east. Constantinople rather than

Rome became the emperor’s base. Constantine recognised the value of the site for a city

that expanded to become a major—sometimes

the

major—city in the known world.

Constantine rebuilt Byzantium from c.324, settled there in 328 and inaugurated it as

Constantinople in 330. He increased it fivefold with two and a half miles of defensive

walls. His religious policy meant that ‘new Rome’ was Christian from its beginning.

Emperor Julian the Apostate declared himself a pagan and tried to revive the ancient

religion. His failure was the last serious attempt of this kind. Julian tried to combat the

Persians and won at Ctesiphon but the campaign petered out. The barbarian threat from

Goths, Huns and others, which felled the Western Empire, was faced in the east too,

which also encountered Bulgars, Slavs, Avars and others. The division of the empire

ecame more pronounced as the barbarian threat increased. After the defeat of Valens by

the Goths in 378 there was a clear division between the west under Gratian and the east

under Theodosius. Again in 395 the empire was divided between east (Arcadius) and

west (Honorius).

When the Western Empire collapsed into separate barbarian states in the 5th century,

the Eastern Empire continued as

the

Roman Empire. Constantinople became

the

capital

as Rome succumbed to barbarian control by Huns, Goths, Vandals, Lombards, Franks

and so on. Constantinople became stronger, its walls improved by successive emperors

such as Theodosius II. There were barbarian attacks on Constantinople, as in 447, but

they failed. From 476 the Western Empire had collapsed into a patchwork of barbarian

states and Odoacer took power in Italy while Zeno in the east was the surviving emperor.

The Eastern Empire developed its own characteristics. Its language and outlook

became increasingly Greek. Outsiders referred to its people as Greeks—though ideas of a

united empire had not vanished. In the 6th century, Justinian I’s success against the

Persians allowed him to indulge visions of a reunited empire. He set about reconquering

the west under generals Belisarius and Narses. Africa, Italy and Spain were recovered,

and Byzantine involvement in the west continued for centuries.

Justinian’s successors found it hard to retain his hold in the west. The Lombards

overran most of Italy while Avars and Slavs invaded the Balkans. Nor could Byzantium

ignore the Persian threat. Emperors such as Maurice and Heraclius distinguished

themselves in this struggle, holding off the attackers. Heraclius reorganised the

government under military themes, defeating the Persian Chosroes in a series of battles.

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New threats appeared from all directions, including new barbarian arrivals in Magyars,

Bulgars and the Rus, the appearance of a new Western Empire under Charlemagne, and

the rise of Islam. The latter’s rapid expansion out of Arabia in the 7th century destroyed

the Persian Empire and damaged Byzantium. The Slavs overran the Balkans while Islam

took the Middle East. Byzantine territory was lost in Asia Minor, North Africa and Spain.

Several times Constantinople was attacked but survived. At sea Greek Fire played a

significant part in Byzantium’s defence.

In the 8th century Byzantium recovered. Greece was regained from the Slavs. Some

Slav groups and the Bulgars were converted to Christianity. In the Mediterranean Crete

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and Cyprus were retaken. There was recovery in Syria and Palestine, while Armenia and

Bulgaria were conquered.

Byzantine expansion was halted by the disaster at Manzikert in 1071 against the newly

arrived Seljuk Turks. Byzantine strength was diminished by religious disputes. The

iconoclast feud divided Byzantium internally while there was also a separation from

Rome. Imperial succession also caused trouble, with coups, court intrigues, civil wars,

murders and mutilation of enemies (notably blinding). Few dynasties could endure for

long.

The period of the Comneni emperors after Manzikert was a difficult one. Asia Minor

was mostly lost. The Normans took southern Italy and Sicily while Byzantium had to

cope with the Crusades. Byzantines might have hoped that western Christians after the

Holy Land would bring relief. There was success with the First Crusade but crusading

also brought new anxieties and threats for Byzantium.

The Fourth Crusade was one of the greatest disasters in Byzantine history. What began

as a Christian attack on Islam was diverted against Constantinople, which the crusaders

captured, installing a Latin Emperor. For a generation the descendants of former

emperors were in exile from their own capital. Byzantium fragmented into Nicaea,

Trebizond and Epirus, under Greeks, while the capital and other territory was under

Franks. The Latin Empire was soon in trouble, with its first emperor, Baldwin, defeated

by the Bulgars.

Byzantium recovered under the Palaeologi, beginning with Michael VIII. In 1261 the

Greeks regained Constantinople. The Empire, however, was a reduced and weaker

version of itself. A new western threat came from Charles of Anjou who took Sicily. In

1282 that was defused by the rising against Charles in the Sicilian Vespers and the fall o

Sicily to Pedro of Aragón. Problems arose from employing the western Catalan Company

of mercenaries which, having failed to obtain its anticipated rewards, turned on

Byzantium. Also in the 14th century came the Ottoman Turks, the eventual destroyers o

Byzantium. Nor did internal division help, with civil war between Andronicus II and his

grandson Andronicus III.

The development of Russia began in the 6th century. The area was settled by Slavs

who formed tribes in the 7th century. Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Huns and Avars all

crossed the region and left a mark. In the 9th century came the Vikings or Varangians.

Although the Scandinavian settlers became absorbed in the population, they provided

leaders who formed states, in particular those around Novgorod and Kiev under the Rurik

family. In c.900 Prince Oleg united Kiev and Novgorod. Expansion came under his

grandson Sviatoslav, who defeated the Khazars in 965 though he was killed during the

Pecheneg invasion. His son Vladimir the Saint, so called because

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he converted Russia to

Greek Orthodox Christianity, formed the first recognisable state at Kiev as Grand Duke

Vladimir I, 980–1015. Contacts were made with Constantinople though there was also

conflict. Waves of nomadic invasion from the east continued with the Khazars and the

Pechenegs. Kiev’s dominance ended with its destruction in 1169 by Andrew Bogoliubski

prince of Suzdal. Russian colonisation to the north-east had begun and continued until

c.1300. The Battle of Kalka in 1223 led to Mongol (Tatar) domination until the late

Middle Ages. Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod (a Mongol vassal) defeated the Swedes on

The Byzantine empire and eastern Europe 179

the Neva in 1240 and the Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus in 1242. Under the Mongols

Russia fragmented under branches of the Rurik family into principalities—one of which

was Moscow. The state of Muscovy was established under Ivan I Kalita (Moneybags)

(1328–40). The Mongols were defeated by Dmitri Donskoi of Moscow at Kulikovo in

1380. Tamberlane invaded Russia from 1390 and defeated the Mongols before

withdrawing. His actions damaged the Golden Horde. The grand dukes of Moscow, Basil

I and II, began to escape Mongol lordship. Basil II defeated Novgorod in 1456. Ivan III

(1462–1505) took the title Ruler of all Russia and took over Novgorod, becoming in

effect the first tsar. He married Zoe daughter of Constantine XI, the last Byzantine

emperor. In 1480 he refused tribute to the Mongols. He also invaded Finland from 1495.

The lesser states of eastern Europe fell under the sway of one or other of the greater

owers or the invading hordes. The Slavs settled eastern Europe but were not united.

Most lost their independence, though some smaller states emerged—sometimes

ecoming powerful though rarely for long. Constant new invasion from the east was a

significant factor. Some areas, including Croatia, fell to Charlemagne in the 8th century.

Croatia emerged independent under Tomislave in 925 but was usually subordinate to

stronger powers. Lithuania suffered from attack from both directions. It was for a time a

considerable power in both central and eastern Europe and much involved with Poland,

with which for a time it united.

Bulgaria formed from the Slav settlements in the early Middle Ages, emerging as a

state by the 9th century. It was a powerful unit for two centuries, under such rulers as

Krum, though having to fight off Magyars and Pechenegs. Under Boris I it became

Christian in 866. Symeon took over Macedonia and Albania. Bulgaria fell under Russian

and Byzantine power and then revived under Samuel from 976 only to fall under

Byzantium again by 1014. Bulgaria defeated the Byzantine Latin Empire and captured

Baldwin I. The Mongols conquered Bulgaria after 1241 and it would fall under

Byzantium, Serbia and finally the Ottomans from 1370. Ottoman victory at Kosovo in

1389 led to control of Bulgaria, Albania and Serbia. The Ottomans also invaded Greece

from 1397. Albania regained independence from 1443 to 1468 under George Castricato

(Skanderbeg), previously a Janissary for the Turks, but was taken over again on his death.

Serbia emerged in the 8th century and then fell to the Bulgars under Symeon. From

931 Serbia was independent under Chaslav only to fall to Samuel and remain under

Bulgaria until the 11th century. From Milvutin who succeeded in 1281 Serbia rose again

notably under Stephen Dečanski who beat the Byzantines at Kustendil in 1330, and

Stephen Dušan who in the late 14th century took over Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly,

Epirus, Bulgaria and part of Bosnia. He defeated the Hungarians. After Kosovo in 1389

Serbia fell under the Ottomans. It regained independence briefly in the

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15th century

under George Brankovic, Despot of Serbia 1427–56, but was swallowed again from

1459.

The Ottomans advanced relentlessly through the 14th and 15th centuries. They

captured Gallipoli, took Thessalonica, defeated the Serbs at Kosovo and brought down

the Bulgarian Empire. Constantinople was surrounded by Turkish territory though still

able to survive attacks in 1397–1402 and 1422. Though Byzantium sought aid from the

west, little came—the Italian cities still sought the best deals they could get.

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