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The Norman Conquests in Britain and Europe,

911–1154

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I:

Geoffrey de Mandeville, Guy de Brionne, Henry I, Hereward, Matilda,

Melus of Bari, Miles of Gloucester, Rainulf Drengot, Ralph of Hereford, Richard I o

Normandy, Richard II of Normandy, Robert I of Normandy, Robert II Curthose, Robert

of Bellême, Robert of Gloucester, Robert Guiscard, Robert de Mowbray, Roger I o

Sicily, Roger II of Sicily, Rollo, Stephen, Taillefer, Waleran of Meulan, Waltheof,

William I the Conqueror, William II Rufus, William Clito, William I Longsword o

Normandy, William Bras de Fer, William fitz Osbern, William of Ypres.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Alençon 1118, Arques-la-Bataille 1052–3, Bamburgh 1095, Bari 1068–71,

Bourgthéroulde 1124, Brémule 1119, Brionne 1047–50, 1124, Burwell 1144, Cannae

1018, Cerami 1063, Civitate 1053, Dinan 1064, Dol 1064, Domfront 1051–2,

Dyrrachium 1081–2, Ely 1071, Exeter 1068, Faringdon 1145, Hastings 1066, Lincoln

1141, Mayenne 1063, Messina 1061, Monte Maggiore 1041, Mortemer 1054, Oxford

1142, Reggio 1060, St-Aubin-sur-Scie 1053, Standard 1138, Strymon 1185, Tinchebrai

1106, Val-ès-Dunes 1047, Varaville 1057, Venosa 1041, Wallingford 1139, 1152–3,

Wilton 1142, Winchester 1141, York 1069.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

ormandy was founded in c.911 when Charles the Simple, the West Frankish king,

granted lands to the Viking leader Rollo. Viking raiders threatened western Francia, and

Charles needed Rollo to form a buffer, repelling further Viking incursions. The grant at

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St-Clair-sur-Epte may have been exaggerated in its extent—

robably only Rouen and a

region around it was granted. The early rulers were styled ‘counts’ rather than ‘dukes’—

but for convenience we shall refer to all Norman rulers as dukes, as they became.

Rollo and his successors established a powerful entity, which we shall call the duchy o

ormandy. Rollo extended his power west to the Vire, taking in central Normandy with

the Bessin. His son William Longsword took Breton lands, expanding Normandy west to

the Couesnon, including the Cotentin and Avranchin. Ducal power remained weak in the

west until William the Conqueror.

The Vikings were pagan invaders but the dukes converted, making Normandy an

important component of the Christian west. In 996, when Richard II succeeded, there was

a peasants’ revolt, suppressed by the nobility. Peasant representatives who brought their

complaints to the Count of Ivry had their hands and feet cut off. Some Scandinavian

influence continued but Normandy reverted to Frankish language and culture. The

Frankish nobility revived in a new form. In the 11th century the dukes and nobles built

castles as residences and strongholds.

Richard III died in 1027, possibly poisoned. Under Robert I, Normandy suffered

disturbances with invasions by the French king and internal rebellion. Robert left his

troubled duchy for a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but died during the return.

His illegitimate son, William the Conqueror, succeeded at the age of about nine.

Instability continued. William’s first battle, at Val-ès-Dunes in 1047, was a victory over

rebels under Guy de Brionne. In 1053 the Conqueror’s uncle, William of Arques, led

another rebellion. Henry I King of France came to aid the rebels but was defeated at St-

Aubin-sur-Scie. Arques surrendered and the Conqueror’s unclewas exiled. A new

invasion was halted by the victory of William’s magnates against a secondary force at

Mortemer in 1054. The invasion by Henry I in 1057 was beaten at Varaville.

The death of his leading enemies left William freer to pursue expansion. He

established a stronger grip on western Normandy and attacked neighbouring areas. In

1063 Maine fell under Norman power. In 1064 William invaded Brittany, accompanied

y Harold Godwinson. He took Dol, Rennes and Dinan and won control over eastern

Brittany.

During this campaign William probably knighted Harold. Harold then, possibly under

duress, swore an oath promising support. The English king, Edward the Confessor, had a

orman mother and had spent years as an exile in Normandy before becoming king. He

gave Norman and French supporters positions in Church and government. He had no

children and the Normans claimed, probably truthfully, that he promised the throne to

William.

On Edward’s death early in 1066 Harold Godwinson took the throne, though he had no

claim by blood, apart from the fact that his sister had married Edward. The Normans

protested that Harold was an oath-

reaker and William claimed the throne. A

Scandinavian attempt to take the kingdom by Harold Hardrada was beaten off at

Stamford Bridge. William planned an invasion, collecting and building a fleet. He sailed

while Harold was engaged against the Scandinavians.

Landing at Pevensey William established himself on the south coast. Harold marched

south to be defeated near Hastings. The conquest of England followed. William’s

campaign after Hastings brought in much of the south. The climax was the submission o

London and his coronation there on Christmas Day.

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It took several years to complete the conquest. Castles were built as the Normans

moved north. The northern earls, Edwin and Morcar, made peace. There were further

rebellions and invasion attempts. Eustace of Boulogne broke with William and attacked

Dover, only to be beaten off. The rebellions were serious but not united—in the north,

East Anglia, Exeter, Hereford and Kent. William captured York. The 1069 rebellion by

Earls Waltheof and Gospatric, Edgar the Aetheling, Scots and Danes was a major threat.

They took York, which William recovered, laying waste to England north of the Humber.

In 1072 he entered Scotland and Malcolm Canmore submitted. The surviving sons o

Harold Godwinson rose in the west but failed. Probably the most famous rebellion was

y Hereward the Wake in Ely in 1071, supported by Earl Morcar. William marched to the

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spot. Morcar submitted and Hereward escaped from history into legend. In 1075 some o

William’s earls rebelled—Roger of Hereford and Ralph the Breton of Norwich. They

were defeated. Roger was captured and imprisoned for life. Waltheof, who had survived

an earlier rebellion, was accused (perhaps wrongly) of conspiracy and was executed in

1076. Thereafter William’s position was secure.

The other great Norman Conquest occurred in southern Italy, led by lesser nobles

seeking their own advantage in a divided land. They included the Hautevilles from near

Coutances, whose origins are obscure. A foretaste of Italian events occurred in Spain,

where the Normans Roger de Tosny and Robert Crispin joined the Christian

Reconquista

of Iberia from the Muslims. The earliest Normans in Italy were passing through on

ilgrimage to the Holy Land. They became embroiled as mercenaries in local struggles.

Others came seeking gain, some exiled from Normandy. The region was fought over by

Lombards, Byzantines and Muslims. The Normans proved useful mercenaries. Those

employed by the Lombard, Melus of Bari, won five successive battles before defeat at

Cannae in 1018.

The Normans established independent lords. The first was Rainulf Drengot who

survived Cannae to become Lord of Aversa. He married the widow of the Lombard Duke

of Gaeta, becoming Count of Aversa and Duke of Gaeta. His successor Richard I became

Prince of Capua. In 1038 the Byzantines under George Maniakes attacked the Muslims in

southern Italy. A number of Normans, including the Hauteville brothers, distinguished

themselves. Normans also aided the Lombard Arduin against the Byzantines in 1041,

winning at Venosa, Monte Maggiore and Monte Siricolo.

In 1042 the Norman leaders held a conference at Melfi and agreed to recognise three

regional authorities—Rainulf Drengot as Duke of Apulia over Aversa, Gaeta and now

Capua, Salerno and Monte Gargano; William Ironarm de Hauteville over Troia and Melfi

(later overall leader as Count of Apulia); his brother Drogo de Hauteville over Venosa.

The Normans took over Apulia and Calabria. The papacy awoke to the Norman threat

and allied with the Byzantines. The papal army was beaten at Civitate in 1053 and peace

was made, while the Byzantines withdrew from Italy. In the Norman army were late

Hauteville arrivals, Richard of Aversa (nephew of Rainulf Drengot) and Robert Guiscard

(half-

rother to the early Hautevilles). Richard ended Lombard power in Capua,

becoming Prince of Capua. Robert Guiscard became Duke of Apulia and Calabria.

Sicily was invaded in 1061 and conquered by 1091, ruled by Guiscard’s brother Roger

I as count. Roger II was recognised as King of Sicily, Apulia and Calabria by the

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anti-

ope Anacletus II in 1130, crowned in Palermo on Christmas Day. The kingdom survived

until the 19th century. Roger II extended his power through the Mediterranean and

coastal North Africa. In 1194 Frederick (II) (HRE), son of the Norman Queen Constance,

took over. The southern Normans played a major part in the Crusades, founding the

principality of Antioch.

William the Conqueror and his successors made the link between England and

ormandy a significant part of medieval history. The Norman kingdom may be taken as

continuing until 1154 and the death of the Conqueror’s grandson Stephen. Normandy

remained an independent duchy until 1204, when Philip II of France took it from John.

The impact of the Conquest was considerable. The Normans introduced aspects of their

The Norman conquests in Britain and Europe 153

social organisation to England, thought of as feudalism. They brought their own form o

fortification, castles, especially motte and baileys. They altered the system of raising

armies and their tactical use. Cavalry from the socially superior became a major part o

armed forces.

The Conqueror’s son, William Rufus, succeeded on his father’s death but the older

son, Robert Curthose, became Duke of Normandy, the kingdom and the duchy thus being

divided. In 1088 there was rebellion against Rufus but it was suppressed. In 1096

Curthose joined the First Crusade, leaving his duchy in Rufus’ care. The arrangements

for its return were never put into effect. A further rising occurred in 1099 under Robert de

Mowbray earl of Northumberland. It was put down with the capture of Bamburgh Castle.

Rufus was killed in the New Forest, possibly by assassination involving his brother

Henry.

Henry I succeeded in 1100 in England. His older brother Robert Curthose again

opposed but was forced into an agreement after a failed invasion. Henry I dealt with

Curthose’s supporter Robert of Bellême and then attacked Normandy. At Tinchebrai in

1106 Curthose was beaten, captured and imprisoned for life, dying in 1134. England and

ormandy were united under Henry I until his death in 1135. Henry was opposed in

Normandy by Curthose’s son, William Clito, who gained support from Louis VI o

France and Fulk of Anjou. In 1118 Fulk besieged Alençon and defeated Henry when he

attempted relief. Henry gained revenge at Brémule in 1119. A rebellion by Waleran o

Meulan was beaten at Bourgthéroulde in 1124.

On the death of Henry I the throne went to his nephew Stephen, despite attempts to

ass it to his daughter Matilda. She married Henry V (HRE), becoming empress, and then

Geoffrey of Anjou. Stephen put down early rebellions and his men defeated the Scots at

the Standard 1138. Matilda invaded England, leading to civil war in which neither side

gained ultimate control though Stephen largely kept the upper hand. In 1141 Stephen was

defeated and captured at Lincoln. He was imprisoned for a year. Matilda’s lieutenant, her

half-

rother Robert of Gloucester, was captured at Winchester. Robert and Stephen were

exchanged. Matilda’s son, Henry Plantagenet, attempted invasions but Stephen survived

until his death in 1154. By then he had agreed that Henry should inherit rather than his

own son. During Stephen’s reign Henry’s father, Geoffrey of Anjou, conquered

Normandy in a ten-year campaign.

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BATTLES AND SIEGES

ALENÇON, SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1118

In which Anglo-

orman knights dismounted to fight on foot. The only detailed

account is in an Angevin chronicle. Anglo-

orman chroniclers ignored it, except for a

rief reference by Orderic Vitalis, probably because Henry I was defeated. Fulk V o

Anjou besieged Alençon, held for Henry by his nephew, the future King Stephen. Henry

came to its relief. Fulk camped within a defensible enclosure called the Park. He sent out

his men group by group, including archers and knights, in three sorties. They made no

serious impact until reinforcements arrived under Lisiard of Sablé. This force dismounted

in a wood and attacked Henry from the flank. Henry’s ally Theobald of Blois was

wounded by an arrow in the forehead. Fulk sallied from the Park in a mounted charge.

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Under the dual attack Henry’s force broke and fled. Alençon surrendered but Henry soon

recovered.

ARQUES-LA-BATAILLE, SIEGE OF, 1052–3

The castle of Arques, near Dieppe, was besieged by William the Conqueror against his

uncle, William count of Arques who built it c.1038 and rebelled in 1052. He deserted the

ducal army before Domfront and shut himself in Arques. The Conqueror set up a

lockade and built a belfry. He left Walter Giffard to conduct the blockade. The ducal

victory at St-Aubin-sur-Scie removed hope of relief. Arques surrendered on terms late in

1053, the garrison promised their lives. They emerged with heads bowed, carrying their

saddles. Count William was exiled to Boulogne. Arques was the last castle in Normandy

to surrender to Geoffrey V in 1145 and resisted Philip Augustus in 1204.

BAMBURGH, SIEGE OF, 1095

Bamburgh and its castle are on the coast north of Alnwick, Northumberland. On a

rock, surrounded by sea, marsh and pools, it was considered ‘impregnable’. William

Rufus besieged the castle when Robert de Mowbray took refuge there after his rebellion.

Rufus blockaded, buiding a counter castle named

Malveisin

Yfel Nehbur

(Bad

eighbour). Robert shouted from the walls to shame those who had promised him

allegiance. Rufus went to Wales, leaving the siege to continue. One night Robert and 30

knights escaped to Newcastle but he was refused entry, captured and taken to Bamburgh.

Rufus threatened to put out his eyes unless the castle surrendered. Countess Matilda and

Robert’s steward, Morael, yielded. Robert spent the rest of his life in prison.

BARI, SIEGE OF, 1068–71

Bari was the final Byzantine obstacle to Norman control of Apulia and southern Italy,

capital of the Byzantine catapan. It stands on a promontory with a harbour on the

Adriatic. Robert Guiscard besieged it from 5 August 1068. Engines were brought against

the walls. The defenders used precious metal plate to reflect the sun into Norman eyes.

They made a successful sortie, firing the engines. A hired assassin attacked Guiscard with

a poisoned javelin but his throw missed when Guiscard bent under a table to spit. The

blockade became fully effective in 1071 when Guiscard’s brother Roger count of Sicily

rought a fleet. The Byzantines attempted relief by sea but failed. Bari surrendered on 16

April 1071 and Guiscard entered. His peace terms were generous. It ended five centuries

of Byzantine rule.

BOURGTHÉROULDE, BATTLE OF, 1124

The climax of Waleran de Meulan’s revolt against Henry I in Normandy. Waleran

relieved his castle at Vatteville in the north and returned towards Beaumont. Henry’s

household troops collected a force from neighbouring garrisons to block Waleran near

Bourgthéroulde. The royalists were under Odo Borleng (captain of household troops),

William of Tancarville (Henry’s

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chaplain) and Ralph of Bayeux (castellan of Évreux).

The young Waleran ignored advice to retreat. Odo Borleng set an example by

dismounting to fight on foot, though others remained on horseback. He ordered archers to

the van against the enemy attack. The charge was halted and Waleran unhorsed and

captured. The rebellion was over.

BRÉMULE, BATTLE OF, 1119

Victory for Henry I of England in Normandy against an invasion force under Louis VI

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of France, allied with Fulk of Anjou. They intended to make William Clito, Curthose’s

son, duke. The battle was fought on a plain near the hill of Verclives, where Henry posted

scouts. They informed him when the French emerged from the woods. He ordered some

knights to dismount and fight on foot, placing himself with them. The French made an

undisciplined charge that was held by the dismounted knights. Eighty French knights

were killed. A second charge was also halted. Henry I was wounded in the head but saved

from a worse fate by his mail hood. The French broke and Louis fled to Andely. He

ecame lost in the woods but a peasant led him to safety. Henry was welcomed in Rouen

with hymn singing and bells ringing. Normandy was safe.

BRIONNE, SIEGES OF, 1047–50, APRIL 1124

Brionne stood on the Risle in central Normandy. Guy of Burgundy count of Brionne,

the Conqueror’s cousin, shut himself behind barred gates in Brionne Castle in 1047 after

a rebellion against the Conqueror was ended by William’s victory at Val-ès-Dunes.

Brionne had a stone walled enclosure. The Conqueror’s siege lasted three years according

to Orderic Vitalis. Some historians have queried the duration but there is no alternative

evidence. William built counter castles on either side of the river. There were daily

sorties but the blockade began to work. Guy surrendered on terms and returned to

Burgundy. The castle was razed though later rebuilt. Henry I of England besieged

Brionne in 1124 following the rebellion by Waleran of Meulan. The town was damaged

y fire. Henry built two counter castles and Brionne surrendered. Henry ordered the

castle to be razed.

BURWELL, SIEGE OF, SEPTEMBER 1144

Burwell Castle in Cambridgeshire was built by Stephen against Geoffrey de

Mandeville in 1143. Geoffrey rebelled with the Isle of Ely as his base. Burwell was built

to garrison royal troops and protect Cambridge. It had an unusual rectangular plan, with

stone walls and gate and a wide ditch to be filled from a nearby stream. It was never

finished. In 1144 Geoffrey attacked, making reconnaissance bareheaded because of the

heat. He was hit in the head by a crossbow bolt shot by a low-

orn archer. He was taken

to Mildenhall and died a week later. The rebellion was over and the castle left unfinished.

CANNAE, BATTLE OF, 1018

Defeat in southern Italy for the Lombard, Melus of Bari, with his Norman mercenaries.

He won five battles with their aid but was beaten by the Byzantines at Cannae, on the

right bank of the Ofanto, four miles from the coast. It was the site of Hannibal’s victory

over the Romans. The Greeks, including the Varangian Guard, were under the catapan

Boiannes. Amatus described the Greeks swarming over the battlefield like bees from an

over-full hive. Cannae ended the independence of Lombard Apulia. The Normans

showed their military worth and some transferred to Byzantine service. One Norman who

survived the battle was Rainulf Drengot.

CERAMI, BATTLE OF, 1063

Norman victory in Sicily, after which the papacy granted the Normans a papal banner.

Cerami was a small settlement on the River Cerami, west of Troina near Nicosia. It was a

victory for Roger I the Great Count with only 130 knights against a larger Muslim army.

The enemy included

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troops from Sicily and Africa. They had advanced from Palermo

against Roger’s stronghold at Troina. Roger, his nephew Serlo and his lieutenant Arisgot

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of Pozzuoli covered themselves with glory. The small Norman force withstood a charge.

The battle lasted through the day but in the evening the Muslims broke and fled. It was an

important step in the Norman conquest of Sicily. They were now established on the

island.

CIVITATE, BATTLE OF, 17 JUNE 1053

Victory for the Normans in Italy against a papal army. The Normans were under

Robert Guiscard and his brother Humphrey. Pope Leo IX sought to diminish Norman

ower, advancing south from Monte Cassino. His mainly Lombard army included

Byzantines and Swabian infantry with two-handed swords. The Germans jeered at the

shorter Normans. Negotiations failed and the Normans attacked. They fought in three

divisions: Guiscard on the left and in reserve, Humphrey in the centre and Richard o

Aversa on the right. The Normans had success on the flanks but the Germans held the

centre. Norman cavalry on the right outflanked the enemy centre. Guiscard was unhorsed

three times but fought on with lance and sword. Leo was captured afterwards. The site is

near San Severo, on a plain by the River Fortore. The papacy recognised Norman

possessions in Italy. Leo was released but died the following year.

DINAN, SIEGE OF, 1064

Besieged by William the Conqueror during his expedition to Brittany, when it resisted.

The

Bayeux Tapestry

shows a wooden keep on a motte while the Normans fire it with

torches. The Bretons handed over the keys as a symbol of surrender.

DOL, SIEGE OF, 1064

Besieged by William the Conqueror during his expedition to Brittany, his first

objective. Riwallon of Dol rebelled against Conan II count of Brittany and appealed to

William for aid. The

Bayeux Tapestry

depicts the castle as a wooden keep on a motte.

Conan besieged Riwallon in Dol and the Conqueror came to its relief. The

Tapestry

shows Conan escaping by rope. Chronicles however make it clear that the count left

before William arrived. The castle was saved. Conan recovered and exiled Riwallon.

DOMFRONT, SIEGE OF, 1051–2

Domfront Castle, built by William of Bellême, stands on a rock over the Varenne near

Avranches, on the border with Maine. A large ditch cut off the only approach. William

the Conqueror besieged Domfront, held for Geoffrey Martel of Anjou, in the late summer

of 1051 and through the winter. While it continued he attacked Alençon, which he took,

ordering the citizens who had reminded him of his bastardy to have their hands and feet

chopped off. At Domfront William built four counter castles. During the siege William

found time to go hawking. Martel attempted relief but had to retreat. The blockade

worked and Domfront surrendered on terms. Later Henry I of England built a new keep,

now in ruins.

DYRRHACHIUM (DURAZZO/ EPIDAMNOS), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1081–2

Dyrrhachium (Durazzo to Italians, Epidamnos to Greeks) was the capital of Illyria, and

is modern Durrês in Albania. Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemond besieged it in 1081

in the Norman attempt at Mediterranean expansion against Byzantium. Guiscard left

Otranto with a fleet and army in May 1081. A Venetian fleet allied to the Byzantines to

defeat the Normans in June, after the Normans suffered damage in a storm. Guiscard

could not blockade from the sea as intended. The siege was an attempt by the Normans to

The Norman conquests in Britain and Europe 157

gain safety within. The defence was led by George Palaeologus. The Normans built a

belfry, countered by a wooden tower and

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later destroyed by fire. The defenders used

catapults, pitch and Greek Fire. The Normans suffered illness and starvation. Alexius I

Comnenus came to the relief. The battle was fought on 18 October. Against the odds the

ormans won through using archers and cavalry against the Varangian Guard (including

Anglo-Saxon exiles). Guiscard’s wife Sigelgaita participated in the ensuing battle,

randishing a spear and helping to rally the troops. Alexius was wounded in the forehead

ut escaped to Ochrid. The Byzantines retreated and Dyrrhachium surrendered on 21

February 1082. Guiscard returned to Italy. Bohemond continued to Larissa where he was

defeated by the Byzantines.

ELY, SIEGE OF, 1071

William the Conqueror besieged the rebel Hereward the Wake. Ely was a fen island,

difficult to approach. The Danes allied with Hereward, who took over Peterborough

Abbey and Ely in 1070. William negotiated with the Danes, who agreed to leave. He

lockaded Ely with ships on the Ouse and built a causeway via Aldreth with logs and

stones. The rebels were joined by Morcar earl of Northumbria but fled. Morcar submitted

and was imprisoned for life. Hereward escaped.

EXETER, SIEGE OF, 1068

Besieged by William the Conqueror. Harold Godwinson’s mother, Gytha, took refuge

there after Hastings. The citizens refused to swear fealty to William or pay tax, shutting

the gates against him. The Conqueror brought an army, including English troops, to

esiege Exeter for 18 days. Negotiations failed. One defender on the wall bared his

osterior and farted at the attackers. William blinded a hostage in the view of the

defenders. He lost a considerable number of men. The walls were mined. Exeter

surrendered on terms. The king forbade looting. He built Rougemont Castle inside Exeter

for a garrison under Baldwin de Meules. Gytha escaped before the surrender to

Flatholme. In 1069 there was a local rising for an invasion by the sons of Harold

Godwinson but Exeter remained loyal to William.

FARINGDON, SIEGE OF, 1145

Captured by Stephen in the civil war with Matilda. Faringdon Castle was built by

Matilda’s supporter Robert of Gloucester for his son Philip. It controlled Malmesbury

and threatened Oxford, demonstrating the Angevin intention of advancing east. Stephen

assembled a force at Oxford, including London militia. He besieged Faringdon, building

a counter castle. Stone-throwing engines were set up and attacks made daily. Archers

ringed the walls to shoot in arrows. Robert was not inside and made no attempt at relief.

The royalists tried scaling but failed. The defenders were persuaded to surrender on

terms. Matilda’s hopes for triumph were crushed though her son Henry continued the

fight. Possibly because his father failed to save Faringdon, Philip of Gloucester went over

to Stephen.

HASTINGS, BATTLE OF, 14 OCTOBER 1066

Victory for William the Conqueror over Harold Godwinson, the major battle in the

conquest of Anglo-Saxon England by the Normans. William invaded in the autumn,

landing at Pevensey. Harold defeated a northern invasion by Harold Hardrada at

Stamford Bridge. On news of Norman arrival he marched south, hoping to surprise

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William, but the latter was prepared. Harold fought without troops who could have taken

part had he waited longer. The traditional site is the hill of Battle town, because the

Battle

bbey Chronicle

says Harold was killed where the altar of the abbey was built. The

earliest sources are less clear, making Caldbec Hill the possible site. The English formed

ranks on foot. The Normans had cavalry and infantry, including well-armed men and

archers. William opened with the archers; who failed to break the English line. Cavalry

charges were difficult because of the ground and failed to break through. A rumour

William had been killed led him to

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remove his helmet and prove he was alive. The

ormans made feigned retreats, drawing troops after them and turning on them, thus

depleting the English ranks. William made a last push and the English broke. Harold was

killed by an arrow in the eye. Two of his brothers were killed. The English retreated but

some made a stand, an event that is difficult to unravel from the sources—the Malfosse

incident. A stand was made near a deep slope or ditch and some Norman cavalry came to

grief, but it did not alter the outcome of the battle. The English never recovered from

Hastings. William secured his position in the south east and was crowned in London by

the end of the year.

LINCOLN, BATTLE OF, 2 FEBRUARY 1141

In which King Stephen was defeated and captured, giving the Empress Matilda her

best opportunity to rule England. The royal castle of Lincoln was seized by the half-

rothers Ranulf earl of Chester and William de Roumare by a ruse in 1140. The citizens

of Lincoln appealed against the rule of the half-

rothers. At Christmas Stephen besieged

Lincoln. The citizens let him in but the rebels held the castle. Stephen used throwing

engines against them. Robert earl of Gloucester, for Matilda, attempted relief, including

Welsh allies. The battle was fought on a Sunday. Stephen was advised to retreat before a

larger army but chose to fight. Robert crossed the Witham and Stephen emerged to fight

to the west of the city. Baldwin fitz Gilbert made a pre-

attle speech for Stephen. Stephen

and some of his knights dismounted to fight on foot, with cavalry on each wing. Some

Angevins dismounted and fought on foot. The royal cavalry saw off the Welsh infantry

on the flanks but was routed by enemy cavalry. Stephen’s lieutenants on the wings,

including six earls and William of Ypres, escaped. Stephen fought on with a sword until

it broke, and then an axe handed him by a citizen, which also broke. Stephen was felled

y a rock on the head. The victors killed many citizens. Stephen was imprisoned, later in

irons, until exchange brought his release.

MAYENNE, SIEGE OF, 1063

Geoffrey de Mayenne’s castle, on a rock over the Mayenne, was besieged by William

the Conqueror to complete his conquest of Maine. William intervened in the succession

dispute over Maine on behalf of his son. Geoffrey favoured a rival. The castle was south

of Domfront near the border. William brought up cavalry and infantry. He used fire, shot

into the castle to panic the garrison. Two boys also entered the castle to start a fire. The

garrison surrendered next day. Geoffrey kept his lands and castle though the Conqueror

placed a garrison there.

MESSINA, SIEGE OF, 1061

A major step in the early stage of the Norman conquest of Sicily. Muslim Messina

stood on the east coast; an obvious target for invaders from the mainland. Count Roger

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made two unsuccessful attempts against the city in autumn 1060 and early 1061. In 1061

the Norman fleet was defeated and the army forced from retreat to flight. In May 1061

Roger returned, expecting aid from Robert Guiscard. Roger crossed with an advance

force at night to find the walls deserted. A supply train for Messina was intercepted.

Roger attacked without waiting for aid and took the city. Many Muslims departed. The

Normans strengthened the fortifications and put in a garrison.

MONTE MAGGIORE, BATTLE OF, 4 MAY 1041

One of three battles in 1041 won for the Lombards against the Byzantines in southern

Italy by Normans. The site was that of Cannae but the mountain name is generally used

in this case. The Normans emerged victorious under William de Hauteville (Ironarm),

who was suffering from fever and watched from a hill. Excitement overcame him and he

charged into the fray. The victory was due to the

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impact of Norman cavalry. The

Normans took much loot.

MORTEMER, BATTLE OF, FEBRUARY 1054

A victory for William the Conqueror against an invasion of Normandy by Henry I o

France and Geoffrey Martel of Anjou. William blocked the route of the main force. A

second army reached Mortemer on the border, led by Henry I’s brother Odo. Magnates

from Upper Normandy, on William’s behalf, faced this force, under William de Warenne

and Walter Giffard. The invaders lacked discipline, being allowed to loot and rape. The

ormans attacked by surprise and routed them. Guy of Ponthieu was captured and

submitted. William ordered a herald, Rodulf de Tosny, to shout the result from a treetop

at night. He began, ‘I bring you dreadful news…’ The king and count retreated.

William’s success was a blow for his enemies in Normandy.

OXFORD, SIEGE OF, SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER 1142

The Empress Matilda was besieged by Stephen in the civil war. Oxford was a westerly

outpost for Matilda. Her presence posed a threat. Stephen countered by besieging Oxford

from 29 September. The castle possessed a high tower. Matilda’s garrison shot arrows

over the river. Stephen crossed by a ford, leading the way by swimming. He charged and

urst into the town, which was fired. The blockade of the castle continued for three

months. Siege engines battered the defenders. Robert of Gloucester planned a relief but

Matilda escaped before Christmas. In one version she escaped by a rope, but probably she

slipped through a postern gate with four knights. She crossed the frozen Thames in a

white cloak, tramping through the snow to Abingdon. She rode to Wallingford and safety.

The Oxford garrison surrendered. It was an exciting escape but a blow to Matilda’s cause.

REGGIO, SIEGE OF, 1060

The Byzantine capital was the last Byzantine stronghold taken by the Normans in

Calabria, captured by the Hauteville brothers, Robert Guiscard and Count Roger. Roger

uilt siege engines the previous winter. The garrison surrendered on terms and went to

Scilla where they resisted the Normans before going on to Constantinople. The conquest

of Calabria paved the way for the invasion of Sicily.

ST-AUBIN-SUR-SCIE, BATTLE OF, 25 OCTOBER 1053

Victory for William the Conqueror’s men over Henry I of France. Henry invaded

ormandy to support rebellion by William of Arques. The Conqueror besieged Arques

and Henry I attempted relief. Henry camped at St-Aubin. In the battle the Norman

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