Water and Wastewater Engineering
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A-8 WATER AND WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
Element or compound Valence
Aluminum 3
Ammonium
()NH
4
1
Barium 2
Boron 3
Cadmium 2
Calcium 2
Carbonate
()CO
3
2
2
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
a
Chloride (not chlorine)
1
Chromium 3
, 6
Copper 2
Fluoride (not fluorine)
1
Hydrogen 1
Hydroxide (OH
)1
Iron 2
, 3
Lead 2
Magnesium 2
Manganese2
Nickel 2
Oxygen 2
Nitrogen 3
, 5
, 3
Nitrate
()NO
3
1
Nitrite
(NO
2
)
1
Phosphorus 5
, 3
Phosphate
(PO
4
3
)
3
Potassium 1
Silver 1
Silica
b
Silicate
(SiO
4
4
)
4
Sodium 1
Sulfate
(SO
4
2
)
2
Sulfide (S
2
)2
Zinc 2
TABLE A-10
Typical valences of elements and compounds in water
a
Carbon dioxide in water is essentially carbonic acid:
CO O CO
22 23
$$
As such, the equivalent weight GMW/2.
b
Silica in water is reported as SiO
2
. The equivalent weight is equal to the gram
molecular weight.
SOURCES
Linde, D. R. (2000) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 81st ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida,
pp. 8-111–8-112.
Montgomery, J. M. (1985) Water Treatment Principles and Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 236.
Sawyer, C. N., P. L. McCarty, and G. F. Parkin (2003) Chemistry for Environmental Engineering and
Science, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, Boston, pp. 39–40.
Weast, R. C. (1983) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 64th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
pp. B-219–B-220.
TABLE A-11
Characteristics of common water and wastewater treatment chemicals and materials
Chemical or
trade name Formula
Specific
gravity
Bulk
density,
kg/m
3
Total
molecular
weight
Active
molecular
weight
Active
(%)
Commercial
strength (%)
Freezing
point,
a
C
Suitable storage
material
Activated
carbon
1.3 to
1.7
240 to 480 Dry: iron, steel; wet:
rubber and silicon linings,
type 316 stainless steel
Alum Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
1.321,340 342 342.0 100 50.0 13
FRP,
b
PE,
c
type 316
stainless steel, rubber
linings
Ammonium
hydroxide
NH
4
OH 0.9 900 35 35.0 100 29 Glass lining, steel, iron,
FRP, PE
Anhydrous
ammonia
NH
3
620 17 99.9
Calcium oxide CaO 560 to
1,140
5675 to 99
Typical
90
FRP, PE, iron, steel,
rubber
Caustic soda NaOH 1.541,530 40 40.0 100 50.0 10 Carbon steel,
polypropylene, FRP,
rubber lining
Chlorine Cl
2
1,470 70.9 99.8 Shipping containers
Ferric chloride FeCl
3
1.42 1,430 162.5 162.5 100 37 to 47
Typical
40.0
Glass, PVC, and rubber
linings; FRP, PE
Ferric sulfate Fe
2
(SO
4
)
3
· 9H
2
O 1,100 561.7 399.7 71 90–94 Glass, plastic, and rubber
linings; FRP, PE, type
316 stainless steel
Fluorosilicic
acid
H
2
SiF
6
1.21 1,210 144.1 144.1 79.2 40 Rubber-lined steel, PE
Phosphoric acid H
3
PO
4
1.571,570 98 95.0 96.9 75.0 to 85 17.5FRP, epoxy, rubber
lining, polypropylene,
type 316 stainless steel
Sodium bisulfite NaHSO
3
1.2 to
1.4
1,200 to
1,400
104.06 28 to 43 Plastic, FRP, stainless
steel
Sodium
carbonate
Na
2
CO
3
500 to
1,100
106 97 to 99.4 Iron, rubber lining, steel,
FRP, PE
Sodium fluorideNaF 800 to
1,200
42 90 to 95 Iron, steel, FRP, PE
Sodium
hypochlorite
NaOCl 1.21 1,210 74.551.5 69.1 12 to 15
(available
Cl
2
)
17.8 Ceramic, glass, plastic,
and rubber linings, FRP,
PE
(continued)
A-9
Chemical
name Formula
Specific
gravity
Bulk
density,
kg/m
3
Total
molecular
weight
Active
molecular
weight
Active
(%)
Commercial
strength (%)
Freezing
point,
a
C
Suitable storage
material
Sodium
metabisulfite
Na
2
S
2
O
5
1.48 1,480 190.10 98 Plastic, FRP, stainless steel
Sodium sulfite Na
2
SO
3
1,280 to
1,440
126.04 23 (available
SO2)
Cast iron, rubber lining, steel,
FRP, PE
Sulfuric acid H
2
SO
4
1,300 98 98 100 77 FRP, PE, porcelain, glass,
and rubber linings
Sulfur dioxideSO
2
64.09 99 Shipping container
TABLE A-11 (continued)
Characteristics of common water and wastewater treatment chemicals and materials
a
At typical solution strength.
b
FRP Fiber-reinforced plastic.
c
PE polyethylene.
A-10
B-11
APPENDIX
B
U.S. STANDARD SIEVE SIZES
U.S. sieve
designation
Size of opening
(mm)
U.S. sieve
designation
Size of opening
(mm)
3 6.35 35 0.500
4 4.76 40 0.420
5 445 0.350
6 3.36 50 0.297
7 2.8 60 0.250
82.38 70 0.210
10 2.00 80 0.177
12 1.68 100 0.149
14 1.41 120 0.125
16 1.19 140 0.105
18 1.00 170 0.09
20 0.841 200 0.074
25 0.710 230 0.063
300.590 270 0.053
C-1
APPENDIX
C
PIPE, FITTING, AND VALVE DATA
Concrete pipe, centrifugally spun
New 140
5 y old 130
10 y old 100
20 y old 80
Ductile iron pipe (DIP)
Lined
10–40 y old 125–140
Unlined
5 y old, 600 mm 130
5 y old, 75 to 600 mm 120
20 y old 100
30 y old 80
Severely tuberculated 40
FRP (higher C for larger diameter)
120–150
Plastic (PVC) (higher C for larger diameter)
120–150
Steel, new, unlined 140
Steel, 10 y old, lined 100
TABLE C-1
Hazen-Williams friction coefficients ( C ) for
nonaggressive water
a
a
Precipitates from softened water can lower C from 140 to 120 in as
short a period as six months. Slime buildup over a 5 y period can
lower C from 140 to 100.
C-2 WATER AND WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
SI, nominal
mm
SI, ID
mm
U.S. nominal
inches
U.S. ID
inches
75 82 33.22
100 102 4 4.04
150155 6 6.10
200 208 8 8.21
250259 10 10.2
300 312 12 12.3
350 363 14 14.3
400 415 16 16.3
450 468 18 18.4
500 521 20 20.5
600 627 24 24.7
750 781 30 30.7
900 937 36 36.9
TABLE C-2
Pipe diameters for mortar-lined ductile iron pipe sizes in SI
and U.S. customary units
SI, nominal
mm
SI, ID
mm
U.S. nominal
inches
100 101.6 4
150152.4 6
200 203.2 8
250254.0 10
300 304.8 12
350 355.6 14
400 406.4 16
450457.2 18
500 508.0 20
600 609.6 24
750 762.0 30
900 914.4 36
TABLE C-3
Sewer pipe sizes in SI and U.S. customary units
C-3
(continued)
Pipe diameters in mm
Capacity 5075 100 125 150 200
m
3
/h m
3
/s
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
1 0.0003 0.001 0.12
2 0.0006 0.004 0.44 0.001 0.06
3 0.0008 0.009 0.93 0.002 0.13
4 0.0011 0.016 1.6 0.003 0.22 0.001 0.05
5 0.0014 0.026 2.4 0.005 0.33 0.002 0.08
6 0.0017 0.037 3.4 0.007 0.47 0.002 0.11
7 0.0019 0.0504.5 0.010 0.62 0.003 0.15
8 0.0022 0.0655.7 0.013 0.79 0.004 0.20 0.002 0.07
9 0.0025 0.083 7.1 0.016 1.0 0.005 0.24 0.002 0.08
10 0.0028 0.102 8.6 0.020 1.2 0.006 0.30 0.003 0.10 0.001 0.04
15 0.0042 0.045 2.5 0.014 0.63 0.006 0.21 0.003 0.09
20 0.0056 0.081 4.3 0.026 1.1 0.010 0.36 0.005 0.15
25 0.0069 0.126 6.5 0.040 1.6 0.016 0.54 0.008 0.22 0.002 0.06
30 0.0083 0.181 9.1 0.0572.3 0.024 0.76 0.011 0.31 0.004 0.08
40 0.0111 0.102 3.8 0.042 1.3 0.020 0.53 0.006 0.13
50 0.0139 0.15
9 5.8 0.065 2.0 0.031 0.80 0.010 0.20
60 0.0167 0.230 8.1 0.094 2.7 0.045 1.1 0.014 0.28
70 0.0194 0.313 10.8 0.128 3.6 0.062 1.5 0.020 0.37
80 0.0222 0.167 4.7 0.081 1.9 0.026 0.47
90 0.0250 0.212 5.8 0.102 2.4 0.0320.59
100 0.0278 0.261 7.1 0.126 2.9 0.040 0.71
125 0.0347 0.408 10.7 0.197 4.4 0.062 1.1
150 0.0417 0.283 6.1 0.090 1.5
175 0.0486 0.386 8.2 0.122 2.0
TABLE C-4
SI-based velocity and friction headloss
Headloss ( h
f
) in m/100 m.
C 100
Velocity headloss ( v
2
/2g) in m .
C-4
TABLE C-4 (continued)
SI-based velocity and friction headloss
Pipe diameters in mm
Capacity 200 250 300 350 375 400
m
3
/h m
3
/s
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
30 0.008 0.004 0.08
40 0.011 0.006 0.13
50 0.014 0.010 0.20 0.004 0.07
60 0.017 0.014 0.28 0.006 0.09
70 0.019 0.020 0.37 0.008 0.12
80 0.022 0.026 0.47 0.010 0.16 0.005 0.07
90 0.025 0.0320.59 0.013 0.20 0.006 0.08
100 0.028 0.040 0.71 0.016 0.24 0.008 0.10
125 0.035 0.062 1.1 0.026 0.36 0.012 0.15 0.007 0.07 0.005 0.05
150 0.042 0.090 1.5 0.0370.51 0.018 0.21 0.010 0.10 0.007 0.07
175 0.049 0.122 2.0 0.050 0.68 0.024 0.28 0.013 0.13 0.010 0.09 0.008 0.07
200 0.056 0.159 2.6 0.065 0.87 0.0310.36 0.017 0.17 0.013 0.12 0.010 0.09
250 0.069 0.249 3.9 0.102 1.3 0.049 0.54 0.027 0.26 0.020 0.18 0.016 0.13
300 0.083 0.359 5.5 0.147 1.8 0.071 0.76 0.0380.36 0.029 0.26 0.022 0.19
350 0.097 0.488 7.3 0.200 2.4 0.096 1.0 0.052 0.48 0.040 0.34 0.031 0.2
5
400 0.111 0.6389.3 0.261 3.1 0.126 1.3 0.068 0.61 0.052 0.44 0.040 0.32
500 0.139 0.408 4.7 0.197 1.9 0.106 0.92 0.081 0.66 0.062 0.48
600 0.167 0.588 6.6 0.283 2.7 0.153 1.3 0.116 0.92 0.090 0.67
700 0.194 0.800 8.8 0.386 3.6 0.208 1.7 0.158 1.2 0.122 0.89
800 0.222 1.045 11.3 0.504 4.6 0.272 2.2 0.206 1.6 0.159 1.1
900 0.250 0.638 5.8 0.344 2.7 0.261 2.0 0.202 1.4
1000 0.278 0.787 7.0 0.425 3.3 0.323 2.4 0.249 1.7
1500 0.417 0.956 7.0 0.726 5.0 0.561 3.7
2000 0.556 1.290 8.5 0.997 6.2
Headloss ( h
f
) in m/100 m.
C 100
Velocity headloss ( v
2
/2g) in m .
C-5
Headloss ( h
f
) in m/100 m.
C 100
Velocity headloss ( v
2
/2g) in m .
Pipe diameters in mm
Capacity 450 500 525 600 675 750
m
3
/h m
3
/s
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
v
2
/2g h
f
350 0.097 0.019 0.14 0.013 0.08 0.010 0.07
400 0.111 0.025 0.18 0.016 0.11 0.013 0.08
500 0.139 0.039 0.27 0.026 0.16 0.021 0.13 0.012 0.07
600 0.167 0.0560.38 0.037 0.23 0.030 0.18 0.018 0.09
500 0.139 0.039 0.27 0.026 0.16 0.021 0.13 0.012 0.07
700 0.194 0.076 0.50 0.0500.30 0.041 0.24 0.024 0.12 0.015 0.07
800 0.222 0.10 0.65 0.065 0.39 0.0540.30 0.031 0.16 0.020 0.09
900 0.250 0.13 0.80 0.083 0.48 0.068 0.38 0.040 0.20 0.025 0.11 0.016 0.07
1000 0.278 0.16 0.98 0.10 0.58 0.084 0.46 0.049 0.24 0.031 0.14 0.020 0.08
1500 0.417 0.35 2.1 0.23 1.2 0.19 0.97 0.11 0.51 0.069 0.29 0.045 0.17
2000 0.556 0.62 3.5 0.41 2.1 0.34 1.7 0.20 0.87 0.12 0.49 0.081 0.29
2500 0.694 0.97 5.
3 0.64 3.2 0.522.5 0.311.3 0.19 0.74 0.13 0.44
3000 0.833 1.40 7.4 0.92 4.5 0.76 3.5 0.44 1.8 0.28 1.0 0.18 0.62
3500 0.972 1.91 9.9 1.255.9 1.03 4.7 0.60 2.4 0.38 1.4 0.25 0.82
4000 1.111 1.63 7.6 1.34 6.0 0.79 3.1 0.49 1.8 0.32 1.1
4500 1.250 2.07 9.4 1.70 7.4 1.00 3.9 0.62 2.2 0.41 1.3
5000 1.389 2.10 9.0 1.23 4.7 0.77 2.7 0.50 1.6
5500 1.528 1.49 5.6 0.933.2 0.61 1.9
6000 1.667 1.77 6.6 1.11 3.7 0.73 2.2
6500 1.806 2.08 7.7 1.304.3 0.85 2.6
7000 1.944 2.41 8.8 1.51 5.0 0.99 3.0
7500 2.083 2.77 10.0 1.73 5.6 1.133.4
8000 2.222 1.97 6.
3 1.29 3.8
8500 2.361 2.22 7.1 1.46 4.2
TABLE C-4 (continued)
SI-based velocity and friction headloss
C-6
TABLE C-5
Hydraulic headlosses for appurtenances
Appurtenance—
alphabetically
Headloss as
multiple of (v
2
/2g)
1. Butterfly valves
Fully open 0.3
Angle closed, 10 0.46
20 1.38
30 3.6
40 10
50 31
60 94
2. Check (reflux) valves
Ball type (fully open) 2.5–3.5
Horizontal lift type 8–12
Swing check 0.6–2.3
Swing check (fully open) 2.5
3. Contraction—sudden
4:1 (in terms of velocities of small end) 0.42
2:1 0.33
4:3 0.19
also see Reducers
4. Diaphragm valve
Fully open 2.3
¾ open 2.6
½ open 4.3
¼ open 21.0
5. Elbow—90
Flanged—regular 0.21–0.30
Flanged—long radius 0.18–0.20
Intersection of two cylinders (welded
pipe—not rounded) 1.25–1.8
Screwed—short radius 0.9
Screwed—medium radius
0.75
Screwed—long radius 0.60
6. Elbow—45
Flanged—regular 0.20–0.30
Flanged—long radius 0.18–0.20
Screwed—regular 0.30–0.42
7. Enlargement—sudden
1:4 (in terms of velocities of small end) 0.92
1:2 0.56
3:4 0.19
also see Increasers
Appurtenance—
alphabetically
Headloss as
multiple of (v
2
/2g)
8. Entrance losses
Bell mouthed 0.04
Pipe flush with tank 0.5
Pipe projecting into tank (Borda entrance) 0.83–1.0
Slightly rounded 0.23
Strainer and foot valve 2.50
9. Gate valves
Open 0.19
¼ closed 1.15
½ closed 5.6
¾ closed 24.0
also see Sluice gates
10. Increasers
0.25 (v
1
2
/2g v
2
2
/2g)
where v
1
velocity at small end
11. Miter bends Deflection angle,
5 0.016–0.024
10 0.034–0.044
15 0.042–0.062
22.5 0.066–0.154
30 0.130–0.165
45 0.236–0.320
60 0.471–0.684
90 1.129–1.265
12. Obstructions in pipes (in terms of pipe velocities)
Pipe to obstruction area ratio
1.1 0.21
1.4 1.15
1.6 2.40
2.0 5.55
3.0 15.0
4.0 27.3
5.0 42.0
6.0 57.0
7.0 72.
5
10.0 121.0
(continued)