Wallace J.M., Hobbs P.V. Atmospheric Science. An Introductory Survey
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480 Index
Pleistocene glaciation, 51–52
Plumes, 376, 411
Point discharge current, 256–258
Poisson, Simeon Denis, 78
Poisson’s equation, 78
Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs),
192–193
Polar vortex, 313–314
Poleward energy transport, 420–421
Pollution, 176–184, 262
regional and global, 181–182
smog, 179–181
sources of, 177–179
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), 181
Potential density, 108
Potential instability, 91–93
Potential temperature, 77–78, 85–86
Potential vorticity, 289–290
Prandtl, Ludwig, 383n
Preactivation, 234
Precession variations in Earth orbit, 54
Precipitation, 19–21
acidity of, 2, 173–174, 261, 262
artificially enhanced, 245–251
chemistry of, 259–263
sources of sulfate, 262
convective versus stratiform, 365
in fronts, 324, 338–339
rain shadow, 21, 343–344
role in hydrologic cycle, 39
scavenging, 174, 261–262
seasonal variation of, 423
solid, classification of, 245–246
Predictability of weather, 5–6, 301
Prediction of weather, 1, 300–303
predicting, 458–460
Pressure, see also Sea-level pressure
ambient, boiling point and, 99
in hydrostatic equation, 67–72, 291
in ideal gas equation, 63–67
partial, 66
reduction to sea level, 72
saturation vapor, 80–81
surfaces of, 71–72
as vertical coordinate, 291
vertical dependence of, 9–12
wind and, 13–14
Pressure broadening of absorption
lines, 128
Pressure coordinates, 291
Pressure gradient force, 279–280
Pressure ridges in pack ice, 34
Pressure tendency equation, 294
Pressure–volume (p–V) diagram, 73
Priestley, Joseph, 153n
Primitive equations for large-scale
motion, 290–297
solution of, 295
Profilers, 412
Prognostic versus diagnostic
equations, 296
Propane, 203
Pseudoadiabatic chart, 78
Pseudoadiabatic process, 84
Pycnocline, 26
Quaternary period, 52
Radar imagery
boundary-layer phenomena, 412
fronts, 327, 328
squall lines, 364
Radiance (intensity), 114–116
blackbody radiation, 117–122
retrieval of temperature soundings
from, 143–144
Radiation, 113–145, 392
balance at top of atmosphere, 144–145
blackbody, 117–122
emission by gas molecules, 127–130
quantitative description of, 114–117
scattering and absorption of, 122–126
solar, see also Insolation
flux density, 115
intensity, 116
long-term increase in, 49, 57
spectrum, indirect determination
of, 132
variations in, 439–441
spectrum of, 113–114
infrared, 114, 140
longwave, 114, 420
near infrared, 114
shortwave, 114, 420
ultraviolet, 114, 127
visible, 114, 128, 140
x-ray, 114, 439–440
transfer of, in planetary atmospheres,
130–144
Radiative-convective equilibrium,
421–422
Radiative efficiency, in greenhouse
warming, 453
Radiative equilibrium, 121
Radiative fluxes at Earth’s surface,
385–386
Radiative forcing of climate, 444–446, 464
Radiative heating rate, 138–139
Radiative relaxation time, 148
Radio acoustic sounding system
(RASS), 412
Radius of Earth, (R
E
), 4
Radon, 159
Rain, see also Precipitation;
Raindrop growth
chemical composition of, 262
Rain bands, 338
Rain shadow, 21, 343–344
Rainbows, 125
Raindrop growth, 221–232
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
and, 216–217, 223
collision and coalescence, 226–228
condensation, 221–224
processes involving ice particles,
238–245
roles of condensation and coalescence,
228–232
Rainfall, see Precipitation
Rankine vortex, 357
Raoult, François Marie, 212n
Raoult’s law, 212
Rayleigh–Jeans limit, 147
Rayleigh scattering, 123
Reanalysis of climate observations, 459
Reflectivity, 120–121, see also Albedo
atmospheric, 7, 133–134
Refraction of light
in ice crystals, 126
in rainbows, 125
Refrigerator, 95
Relative humidity (RH), 82
Relative vorticity, 287
Remote sensing of boundary layer, 412
Remote sensing, passive, 139–144
Reservoirs
carbon, 41–45
oxygen, 46
water, 38
Residence time, 38, 155–157
aerosols (particles), 176
Residual layer, 398–399
Respiration and decay reaction, 42
Retrieval of temperatures from
radiances, 143
Return stroke (lightning), 254–255
Reversibility, 93, 100–101
Carnot cycle, 95
Reynolds, Osborne, 223n
Richardson, Lewis F., 19
Richardson number, 380
Richardson’s rhyme, 19
Ridge in geopotential height field,
313–315
Riming, 241–242, 253
Rolls (horizontal roll vortices), 401, 402,
405, see also Cloud streets, rolls
Root mean squared amplitude,
climatological mean, 427
Rossby, Carl Gustav, 288n
Rossby waves, 288
along sloping terrain, 340–341
Rotation of Earth
apparent forces due to, 266–267
suppression of vertical motion by, 286
Rotation of supercell storms, 353–354
Rotational state of molecules, 127
Rotational transitions, 128
Rotor cloud, 407–408
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Roughness of land surface, 36
Runaway greenhouse, 447
Salinity of sea water, 26–27, 170
Santa Ana winds, 342
Satellite imagery
air mass modification,
Lake Ontario, 405
annual-mean precipitation, global, 21
carbon monoxide, global, 165
cloud streets, 402, 405
clouds and surface temperature,
global, 21
ENSO impact on sea-level, 435
extratropical cyclone, north Pacific, 13
fires (global), 158
fronts, 325–327
gravity waves, 90
ice floes, Greenland, 34
Kelvin-Helmholtz billows, 381
land vegetation, global, 36
lightning (global), 258
marine stratus, 7, 377
net primary productivity, global, 30
open cell convection, 18, 403
radiation, top of atmosphere
(global), 144, 145, 424
rate of creep of ice, Antarctica, 33
sea surface temperature,
Gulf Stream, 28
smoke plumes, California, 344
spread of Pinatubo dust cloud, 442
squall line, Florida, 364
surface winds (global), 17
surface winds, SST, central
America, 343
total column ozone, 2
tropical cyclone, Florida, 13, 367
tropospheric ozone, global, 159, 167
tropospheric trace gases, 160–161
Satellite remote sensing, 139–144, 187
Saturated adiabatic lapse rate,
84–85, 106–107
Saturated adiabatic process, 84–85
Saturated air, 91
Saturation mixing ratio, 82
Saturation vapor pressure, 80–81
Scale height, 9, 69–71
Scales of horizontal flow, 376
Scattering, 7, 122–126
Scattering phase function, 134
Scatterometer, 389
Scavenging, 174, 261–262
Schaefer, Vincent, 248n
Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 153n
Schönbein, Christian Friedrich, 165n
Schwarzschild, Karl, 135n
Schwarzschild’s equation, 134–136
Sea breeze, 408–410
Sea ice, 33, 437
Sea level
ENSO-related fluctuations, 435
global rise, 456–457
Sea level, global, 456–457
Sea level pressure, 71–72, see also Pressure
Sea-level pressure tendency, 324
Sea-salt particles, 170
Sea state, 389
Sea surface temperature, 30, 414
tropical cyclones and, 369
Sea water density, 25–26
Seasonal climate variations, 423–425
insolation, 423
net radiation, top of atmosphere, 424
ocean mixed layer temperature, 424
polar pack ice, 33
precipitation, 20
sea level pressure, 17
at selected stations, web site
surface air temperature, 425
surface wind, 17
Seasonal thermocline, 423
Second law of thermodynamics, 93–101
generalized statement of, 100–101
Secondary cold front, 318, 320
Sediment cores, 43
Seeding of clouds, 245–251
Semidiurnal tide, 423
Sensible heat, 75–76, see also Enthalpy
fluxes of at Earth’s surface,
386–388, 395, 420–421
Sensitivity of climate system, 445–446
Severe storms, 349, see also Convective
storms
Shallow convection, 16
Shape factor of absorption lines, 128
Shape of raindrops, 231–232
Shape of solid precipitation,
240, 245–246
Shaw, Napier, 97n
Shear
horizontal, 271–272
vertical, 18, 347, 378
Shelf cloud, 358
Ship tracks, 218
Shock waves from lightning, 256
Shortwave radiation, 114, 121–122
Sidereal day, 277
Silver iodide, seeding of clouds with,
248–249
Single-cell thunderstorms, 350–351
Single scattering albedo, 134
Sinks of aerosols, 173–174
Sinks of trace gases, 162
Size distributions of aerosols,
169, 174–176
Size parameter, Mie theory, 123
Skew T – ln p chart, 78–79, 86, 97
Skin temperature, 149
Sleet (ice pellets), 246–247
Smog, 179–181
Smoke, 158, 160, 171, 179, 344
Snow, see Precipitation; Solid
precipitation
Snow cover, 34
Snowball Earth, 50–51
Solar, 413
Solar radiation
flux density, 115
intensity, 116
long-term increase in, 49, 58
spectrum, indirect determination
of, 132
variations in, 439–441
Solar spectrum, indirect determination
of, 132
Solar variability, 439–441
Solid angle, 114n, 115
Solid Earth
as source of aerosols, 158
as source of gases, 159
Solid precipitation, 245, see also
Precipitation
causing electrification, 252–254
formation of, 243–245
Solubility, 260
Soot (elemental carbon), 173
Sources of aerosols, 170–172
Sources of trace gases, 157–160
South equatorial current, 28
Southerly wind, 4
Southern Oscillation, see ENSO cycle
Spatial dendrites (ice crystals),
241, 246–247
Specific heats
at constant pressure, 75
at constant volume, 75
Specific humidity, 80
Specific volume of a gas, 63
Spectrum of radiation, 113–114
Speed of light, 113
Spherical coordinate system for Earth, 3
Spherical harmonics, 296
Splintering of ice, 237
Spongy hail, 242
Spontaneous (irreversible)
transformations, 100–101
Sprites (luminous flashes), 258–259
Squall line, 327, 364–365
St. Elmo’s fire, 256n
Stability of atmospheric boundary layer,
375, 396–398
Stable equilibrium state, 92
Stable equilibrium state (climate),
449–450
Standard atmosphere, 9
Standard deviation, 427
Standardized anomaly, 427
Static stability, 88–93
Stationary front, 321, see also Fronts
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482 Index
Statistical description of turbulence,
378–379
Steam fog, 404
Steering level, 314, 347
Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 119
Stefan–Boltzmann law, 119–120
Stefan, Joseph, 119n
Stellar ice crystals, 246–247
Stepped leader (lightning), 254, 255
Steradian, 114
Storm surge, 370–371
Storm track, 430
Storms, see Convective storms;
Extratropical cyclones;
Terrain-induced windstorms;
Thunderstorms; Tropical cyclones
Stratification, turbulence and, 396–398
Stratocumulus, see Stratus cloud decks
Stratopause, 10
Stratosphere, 10–11
chemistry of, 184–196
ozone layer, 2, 182–196
Stratus cloud decks, 7, 220, 403, 447–448
temperature inversion above, 219
Streamfunction, 305
Streamers (lightning), 255
Streamlines, 271, 275–276
Sub-adiabatic lapse rates, 388
Subduction of tectonic plates, 37
Subgeostrophic wind speeds, 283
Sublimation, 233n
Subpolar low-pressure belts, 15
Subsidence and capping inversion, 21
Subtropical anticyclones, 15
Subtropical high-pressure belts
(or highs), 15
Subvisible cirrus clouds, 448
Sulfur dioxide (SO
2
), 2, 155, 156, 157,
158, 161, 162, 168–169, 172, 173,
178, 179, 183–184, 196–198, 261,
262, 441
Sulfur gases, 168–169, 172
aqueous-phase chemical reactions, 261
chemical cycling of, 183–184
in smog, 179
sources of in precipitation, 262
stratospheric, 196–198
volcanic emissions of, 37–38, 441–443
Sun, increasing luminosity of, 49, 58
Sun-related constants, 468
Sunphotometer, 132–133
Sunspot cycle, 439–441
Sunspots, 439
Supercell thunderstorms, 350, 352–356
classic, HP and LP, 357n
right- and left-moving, 354–355
tornadoes, 356–361, see also Deep
convection
Supercooled droplets, 232
Supergeostrophic wind speeds, 283
Supersaturation, 209–215
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN),
214–215
ice particles, 238–241
Surface air temperature chart, 321
drop following volcanic eruptions, 443
global mean, 419–420, 444–446
Surface energy of droplets, 210
Surface layer, 384
Surface pressure, 7
Surface tension, 210
Surface wind field, 14–16
Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik, 59
Synoptic charts, plotting convections, 314
Synoptic scale motions, 376
Tail cloud, 359
Taylor, Geoffrey Ingram, 390n
Teleconnections, 428
Temperature advection, 285, 292, 293,
307, 316
Temperature–entropy diagram, 97
Temperature inversion, 11, 90
Tephigram, see Temperature–entropy
diagram
Terminal fall speed, 174, 224
Terrain, see Orographic effects on
weather
Terrain-induced gravity waves, 90
Terrain-induced windstorms, 342–343
Terrestrial biosphere, 35–36
as carbon reservoir, 41–44
climate coupling with, 435–437
Terrestrial radiation, 114, 119
Thermal atmospheric tide, 422
Thermal diffusion chamber, 214
Thermal internal boundary layer
(TIBL), 409
Thermal wind, 283–286, 306, 328, 332
Thermally direct, indirect
circulation, 299
Thermals, 16, 376–378, see also Plumes
Thermocline, 26
Thermocline, seasonal, 423
Thermodynamic diagrams, 73, 78–79,
web site
Thermodynamic energy equation, 292
Thermodynamic method, 400
Thermodynamic variables, 5
Thermodynamics, 63
Thermodynamics of atmosphere,
63–101
Thermohaline circulation, 27, 29
Thermosphere, 10–11
Thermosteric effect, 456–457
Thickness, geopotential, 69–72
on synoptic charts, 315, 316
Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin),
74n, 84n, 256
Thunder, 256
Thunderstorms, 16–18, 344–366
damaging winds with, 349–356
electrification and microphysics
of, 252–259
environmental controls on, 345–349
mesoscale complexes, 363–366
structure and evolution, 349–356
Tilting of vorticity, 348, 372
Top–down cyclogenesis, 337–338
Tornadoes, 356–361
Total column ozone, 2, 192, 196
Total reactive nitrogen, 163
Trace gases, see Gases
Trade winds, 14, 299
Trajectories, 334–336
streamlines versus, 275–276
Translational energy of molecules, 127
Transmissivity, 120–121, 130
Transmissivity, flux, 136
Transpolar drift stream, 33
Transport of aerosols, 173, 259–260
Transport of trace gases, 160, 259–260
Triple point, 318, see also Fronts
Tropical cyclones, 12, 366–371
dynamics, 367–369
eyewall replacement cycle, 370
genesis regions, 369
life cycle, 369
storm surge, 370–371
vertical structure, 367–368, 372–373
Tropical depression, see Tropical cyclones
Tropical storm, see Tropical cyclones
Tropical tropopause, 11
Tropopause, 11, 184–185
break, 11
folding, 334, 444–446
Troposphere, 10–11
chemistry of, 153–176
Tropospheric jet stream, 12, 424–425
Trough in geopotential height field,
313–316
Turbopause, 10
Turbulence, 18, 376–385
closure, 382–383
intensity of, 379–381
scales and similarity theory,
383–385
statistical description of, 378–379
transport and fluxes, 381–382
Turbulent energy cascade, 18, 19, 376
Typhoons, see Tropical cyclones
Ultrafine particles, 176
Ultraviolet radiation, 114, 127
absorption by stratospheric ozone
layer, 11, 185–186
role in creation of hydroxyl
radical, 163
Unit conversions, list of, 468
Universal constants, list of, 467
Universal gas constant (R*), 65
Unsaturated air, 81
static stability of, 88–91
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Unstable boundary layer, 375
Unstable equilibrium state, 92
Unstable equilibrium state (climate), 450
Unstable isotopes, 47–48
Updrafts and downdrafts
multicell storms, 351–352
ordinary thunderstorms, 350
squall lines, 364
supercell storms, 352–355
Upper level charts, 328–331
Upward electrical discharges, 258–259
Upwelling, 30, 294, 435
Urban boundary-layer effects, 410
Urban effects on weather, 4, 250–251,
410–411
Urban heat island, 321, 411
Urban plumes, 411
Urban street canyons, 411
Väisälä, Vilho, 89n
Valley winds, 407
Vapor phase, growth of ice particles
from, 238–241
Vapor pressure (saturation)
over ice, 81
over small droplets, 210–212
over water, 79–80
Vaporization, latent heat of, 84
Variability, climate, 419, 425–443
coupled, 426, 431–439
externally forced, 426, 439–443
internally generated, 426, 429–431
Variability, solar, 439–441
Variance, 426
Veering of wind, 285
Velocity components for atmospheric
motions, 4
Ventilation of deep water, 29
Venus, 56–57, 120, 145, 447
Vertical structure
atmosphere, 9–12
atmospheric boundary layer, 391–398
convective storms, 347–348
extratropical cyclones, 328–334
oceans, 25–27
squall lines, 364–366
Vertical velocity, 4, 317
in extratropical cyclones, 318
inference of in primitive equations,
293–294
suppression of, by Earth’s rotation, 286
in tropical cyclones, 367–368
Vertical wind shear, 18, 347, 378
tropical cyclones and, 369
Vibrational state of molecules, 127
Vibrational transitions, 128
Virga, 239
Virtual temperature, 66–67, 80
Visible radiation, 114
Visible satellite imagery, 140
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
157–158, see also Hydrocarbons
as pollutants, 177–178
Volatile substances in planetary
evolution, 37
Volcanic eruptions, 37–38, 159, 173
in carbonate–silicate cycle, 45, 51
climate impacts of, 438, 441–443
contribution to stratospheric sulfate
layer, 197–198
largest recent, 443n
role in renewing planetary
atmospheres, 57
as a source of trace gases, 159
as source of Earth’s atmosphere, 38
Volume absorption coefficient, 123
Volume extinction coefficient, 123
Volume scattering coefficient, 123
Volume of air, 63–67
von Hann, Julius F., 87n
von Kármán constant, 383
von Kármán, Theodor, 383n
von Karman vortices, 377
Vonnegut, Bernard, 248n
Vortex collar, 192
Vorticity, 272–274, 286–289
conservation law for, 286–289, 307–308
generation of, in tornadoes, 360
on synoptic charts, 315
potential, 289–290
relative, planetary, absolute, 287
Vostok ice core record, 52
Wake turbulence, 407–408
Walker, Gilbert Thomas, 431n
Wall cloud, 358, 359
Warm advection, see Atmospheric
temperature advection
Warm clouds
microphysics of, 209–63
growth of cloud droplets,
221–232
liquid water content and
entrainment, 218–221,
398–399
microstructure of, 215–218
modification of, 245–247
Warm core cyclones, 71–72, 336–337,
366–368
Warm front, 318, 321, see also Fronts
Warm sector of cyclone, 320, 328
Water, see also Oceans
cycling in Earth system, 38–41
reservoirs of, 38–39
Water masses, 27
Water-related constants, list of, 467
Water vapor
climate feedback, 447
in the hydrologic cycle, 38
satellite imagery, 139
thermodynamics of, 78–87
vertical profiles of radiative heating
rate, 138–139
Water vapor channel, 326–327
Waterspouts, 361
Wave breaking, 18
Wave number of electromagnetic
radiation, 113, 136–138
Wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation, 113
Weather forecasting, 1, 2, 300–303
Weather systems, 313–371
convection storms, 19, 344–366
extratropical cyclones, 12, 313–339
orographic, 340–344
tropical cyclones, 12, 366–371
Weather versus climate, 5, 149
Weathering, 45
Wegener, Alfred, 37
Weight of atmosphere, 7
Weighting functions in remote
temperature sensing, 142–143
Westerly wind, 4
Westerly wind belts, 14
Western boundary currents, 28
Wet-bulb potential temperature, 85–87
Wet-bulb temperature, 83–86
Wet deposition of aerosols, 162, 184
Wettable surfaces, 212
Wien, Wilhelm, 118n
Wien’s displacement law, 118
Wilson, C. T. R., 252n, 256
Wind-driven currents, 282
Wind-driven upwelling, 31
Wind shear, 18, 271–272, 347, 380
horizontal, 271–272
vertical, 18, 347, 369, 378
Winds, 12–19
damaging, with convective storms,
356–363
in frontal soundings, 331–332
katabatic, 405
mountain and valley, 406–407
near fronts, 318–320
pressure and, 13–14
surface wind field, 14–16, 363
terrain-induced storms, 342–343
in tropical cyclones, 366–369
Wizard of O
z
, 372n
Work (expansion), 72–74
X-ray imagery of sun, 439
X-ray radiation, 114, 127
Younger Dryas, 54–55
Zenith angle, 115
Zeroth-order closure, 383
Zonal average, 4
Zonal velocity, 4
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