Wallace J.M., Hobbs P.V. Atmospheric Science. An Introductory Survey
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
464 Climate Dynamics
radiation at the top of the atmosphere due
to the presence of clouds) is given by
(10.17)
where F is the local insolation at the top of the
atmosphere, A is the local albedo, OLR is the
local outgoing longwave radiation at a point
on Earth averaged over an extended period
like a season, and A
cs
and OLR
cs
are the clear
sky albedo and clear sky outgoing longwave
radiation (i.e., the average based on just those
instantaneous images that are deemed to be
free of clouds) for the same period.
10.23 Based on (10.17) answer the following
questions:
Why is the net cloud radiative forcing in
Fig. 10.37 strongly negative over the regions
of persistent stratus cloud decks off the coasts
of Peru, Namibia, and Baja California?
Why is the net cloud radiative forcing in
Fig. 10.37 positive over Antarctica?
10.24 (a) Rework Exercise 10.4 from the perspective
of the sensitivity of the climate system to
changes in ice cover.This time, instead of
including variations in atmospheric CO
2
as
part of the forcing, use only the forcing due
to the difference in the Earth’s albedo.
(b) Compare this result with the estimated
climate sensitivity in the absence of the CO
2
feedback.
10.25 Using an approach analogous to the one used
in Exercise 10.4, estimate the sensitivity of the
climate system, comparing global-mean
surface air temperature in the year 2000 with
conditions at the time of the industrial
revolution. Use this value to estimate the rise
in surface air temperature that would result
from a doubling of the atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentration relative to the
preindustrial value (280 ppmv), assuming that
concentrations of other atmospheric
constituents remain fixed at pre-industrial
levels and sufficient time has elapsed for the
large thermal reservoirs in the Earth system to
equilibrate with the forcing.
10.26 (a) Derive a “low end” estimate of the
response of global-mean surface air
temperature to a doubling of atmospheric CO
2
CF F(A
cs
A) (OLR OLR
cs
)
concentrations relative to preindustrial values,
proceeding as in Exercise 10.24, but assuming
a storage of 0.3 (rather than 0.7) W m
2
and an
aerosol forcing of 0.5 (instead of 1.0) W m
2
for aerosols. In addition, assume that of the
0.7 K warming of global-mean surface air
temperature since 1860, 0.2 K is in response to
solar forcing and should therefore not be
included in the numerator as part of the
temperature change. (b) Derive a “high end”
estimate, proceeding as in Exercise 10.24, but
assuming an aerosol forcing of 1.4 W m
2
.
10.27 Based on the assumptions in Exercise 10.24
concerning the various climate forcings and
the estimated climate sensitivity
0.70 K
(W m
2
)
1
, calculate the equilibrium response
of global mean surface air temperature to the
current greenhouse forcing.
10.28 The rise in sea level that would occur in
response to a prescribed input of energy
depends on how the heating is distributed with
respect to the temperature of the water, as
illustrated in this exercise. A planet is covered
by an ocean 2500 m deep with a 50 m deep
mixed layer.The water in the mixed layer is at
a temperature of 15 °C and below the mixed
layer the water temperature is 5 °C. If the
water were mixed to a uniform temperature
while conserving energy, (a) what would the
final temperature be? (b) By how much would
the densities of the upper and lower layers
change? (c) By how much would sea level
change?
The density of sea water is a complicated
function of temperature T, salinity s, and
pressure p.The pressure and temperature
dependence may be expressed in the
polynomial form
Ignore the rather weak pressure dependence
of
0
, c
1
, and c
2
and assume that the salinity
remains constant. With these assumptions,
the numerical values of the coefficients are
c
1
0.2 kg m
3
K
1
and c
2
0.005
kg m
3
K
2
.[Hint: Consider a two-layer fluid,
with temperatures T
1
, T
2
and thicknesses d
1
c
2
(p) (T
0
(p) T)
2
0
(p) c
1
(p) (T
0
(p) T)
P732951-Ch10.qxd 12/09/2005 09:13 PM Page 464
Exercises 465
and d
2
. If the density difference is not too
large, show that the change in the height is
where
and
]T
d
1
T
1
d
2
T
2
d
1
d
2
d
2
c
1
(T T
2
) c
2
(T T
2
)
2
d
1
c
1
(T T
1
) c
2
(T T
1
)
2
,
dh
1
0
(d
1
d
1
d
2
d
2
)
10.29 At present the imbalance in the radiative
flux density at the top of the atmosphere
due to the increasing storage of energy in
the Earth system in response to the buildup
of greenhouse gases is estimated to be
around 0.8 W m
2
. Suppose that this
imbalance were to persist over the next
century, with 10% the energy storage going
into melting the Antarctic and Greenland ice
sheets. (a) Estimate the resulting rise in
global sea level. (b) At this rate, how long
would it take for the Greenland and
Antarctic ice sheets to completely melt?
[Hint: Use the data in Table 2.2. There is no
need to consider the areal coverage of the
ice sheets.]
P732951-Ch10.qxd 12/09/2005 09:13 PM Page 465
P732951-Ch10.qxd 12/09/2005 09:13 PM Page 466
AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science
AVHRR NDVI Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
CLIVAR International Programme on Climate Variability and Predictability
CMAP CPC Merged Analysis and Prediction
CNES Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales (the space agency of France)
COLA Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies
CPC Climate Prediction Center
DAAC Distributed Active Archive Center
ECMWF European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting
ERS-2 European Remote-sensing Satellite
GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (NOAA)
GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)
HadISST Hadley Centre’s Sea-Ice and Sea Surface Temperature data set
IGES Institute of Global Environment and Society
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JAWS Joint Airport Windshear Studies project
MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (NASA)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research
NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction
NIMROD Northern Illinois Research on Downbursts project
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NTIS National Technical Information Service
PACS Pan American Climate Studies
PRISM Pacific Regional Information System
QuikSCAT Quick Scatterometer
RADARSAT Canadian remote sensing satellite
RAINEX Hurricane Rainband and Intensity Change Experiment
SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor
SMRP Satellite and Mesometeorology Research project
SST Sea Surface Temperature
TMI Tropical Microwave Imager
TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
TOPEX Ocean Topography Experiment
UCAR University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
WHOI Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Abbreviations Used in
Captions
469
P732951-Abbrevations.qxd 9/12/05 7:38 PM Page 469
P732951-Abbrevations.qxd 9/12/05 7:38 PM Page 470
Universal Constants
Universal gravitational constant G 6.67 10
11
N m
2
kg
2
Universal gas constant in SI units R* 8.3143 J K
1
mol
1
Gas constant in chemical units (R
c
)* 0.0821 L atm K
1
mol
1
Speed of light c 2.998 10
8
m s
1
Planck’s constant h 6.626 10
34
J s
Stefan–Boltzmann constant
5.67 10
8
J s
1
m
2
K
4
Constant in Wien’s displacement law
max
T 2.897 10
3
m K
Boltzmann’s constant k 1.38 10
23
J K
1
molecule
1
Avogadro’s number N
A
6.022 10
23
molecules mol
1
Loschmidt number L 2.69 10
25
molecules m
3
Air
Typical density of air at sea level
0
1.25 kg m
3
Gas constant for dry air R
d
287 J K
1
kg
1
Effective molecular weight of dry air M
d
28.97 kg kmol
1
Specific heat of dry air, constant pressure c
p
1004 J K
1
kg
1
Specific heat of dry air, constant volume c
v
717 J K
1
kg
1
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
c
p
9.8 10
3
K m
1
Thermal conductivity at 0 °C (independent of pressure) K 2.40 10
2
J m
1
s
1
K
1
Water Substance
Density of liquid water at 0 °C
water
10
3
kg m
3
Density of ice at 0 °C
ice
0.917 10
3
kg m
3
Gas constant for water vapor R
v
461 J K
1
kg
1
Molecular weight of H
2
O M
w
18.016 kg kmol
1
Molecular weight ratio of H
2
O to dry air M
w
M
d
0.622
Specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure c
pw
1952 J deg
1
kg
1
Specific heat of water vapor at constant volume c
vw
1463 J deg
1
kg
1
Specific heat of liquid water at 0 °C c
w
4218 J K
1
kg
1
Specific heat of ice at 0 °C c
i
2106 J K
1
kg
1
467
Constants and Conversions
for Atmospheric Science
P732951-Constants.qxd 9/12/05 7:50 PM Page 467
468 Constants and Conversions for Atmospheric Science
Latent heat of vaporization at 0 °C L
v
2.50 10
6
J kg
1
Latent heat of vaporization at 100 °C 2.25 10
6
J kg
1
Latent heat of sublimation (H
2
O) L
s
2.85 10
6
J kg
1
Latent heat of fusion (H
2
O) L
f
3.34 10
5
J kg
1
Earth and Sun
Acceleration due to gravity at sea level
o
9.81 ms
2
Mass of the Earth m
5.97 10
24
kg
Mass of the Earth’s atmosphere m
e
5.3 10
18
kg
Radius of the Earth R
E
6.37 10
6
m
Area of the surface of the Earth 5.10 10
14
m
2
Mass of an atmospheric column m
a
1.017 10
4
kg m
2
Atmosphere to Pascals 1 atm 1.01325 10
5
Pa
Rotation rate of Earth 7.292 10
5
s
1
Mass of the sun m
1.99 10
30
kg
Radius of the sun r
6.96 10
8
m
Mean earth–sun distance d 1.50 10
11
m 1.00 AU
Solar flux E
s
3.85 10
26
W
Average Intensity of solar radiation I
s
2.00 10
7
W m
2
sr
1
Units and Conversions
Fahrenheit–Celsius conversion T
C
Kelvin–Celsius conversion T
K
T
C
273.15
Hectopascal conversions 1 hPa 1mb 10
3
dynes cm
2
Cubic meters to liters 1 m
3
1000 L
Days to seconds 1 d 86,400 s
Calories to Joules 1 cal 4.1855 J
Latitude conversions 1° lat 60 nautical mi 111 km
69 statute mi
Longitude conversions 1° lon 111 km cos(latitude)
Knots to miles per hour 1 knot 1 nautical mih 1.15 statute mih
Meters per second to knots 1 m s
1
1.9426 kt
Sverdrups to m
3
s
1
1Sv 10
6
m
3
s
1
Dobson unit 1 DU 2.6 10
20
molecules O
3
cm
2
5
9
(T
F
32)
P732951-Constants.qxd 9/12/05 7:50 PM Page 468
Volume 1 BENO GUTENBERG. Physics of the Earth’s Interior. 1959*
Volume 2 JOSEPH W. C HAMBERLAIN. Physics of the Aurora and Airglow. 1961*
Volume 3 S. K. RUNCORN (ed.). Continental Drift. 1962*
Volume 4 C. E. JUNGE. Air Chemistry and Radioactivity. 1963*
Volume 5 ROBERT G. FLEAGLE AND JOOST A. BUSINGER.An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics. 1963*
Volume 6 L. DEFOUR AND R. DEFAY.Thermodynamics of Clouds. 1963*
Volume 7 H. U. R
OLL. Physics of the Marine Atmosphere. 1965*
Volume 8 R
ICHARD
A. C
RAIG.The Upper Atmosphere: Meteorology and Physics. 1965*
Volume 9 W
ILLIS
L.WEBB. Structure of the Stratosphere and Mesosphere. 1966*
Volume 10 M
ICHELE
CAPUTO.The Gravity Field of the Earth from Classical and Modern Methods. 1967*
Volume 11 S. MATSUSHITA AND WALLACE H. CAMPBELL (eds.). Physics of Geomagnetic Phenomena (In two vol-
umes). 1967*
Volume 12 K.Y
A K
ONDRATYEV. Radiation in the Atmosphere. 1969*
Volume 13 E. P
ALMÅN AND C. W. NEWTON. Atmospheric Circulation Systems: Their Structure and Physical
Interpretation. 1969*
Volume 14 H
ENRY RISHBETH AND OWEN K. GARRIOTT. Introduction to Ionospheric Physics. 1969*
Volume 15 C. S. RAMAGE. Monsoon Meteorology. 1971*
Volume 16 JAMES R. HOLTON.An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. 1972*
Volume 17 K. C.YEH AND C. H. LIU.Theory of Ionospheric Waves. 1972*
Volume 18 M. I. BUDYKO. Climate and Life. 1974*
Volume 19 MELVIN E. STERN. Ocean Circulation Physics. 1975
International Geophysics Series
EDITED BY
RENATA DMOWSKA
Division of Applied Science
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
DENNIS HARTMANN
Department of Atmospheric Sciences
University of Washington
Seattle,Washington
H. THOMAS ROSSBY
Graduate School of Oceanography
University of Rhode Island
Narragansett, Rhode Island
P732951-IGS.qxd 9/12/05 7:51 PM Page 1
Volume 20 J. A. J
ACOBS. The Earth’s Core. 1975*
Volume 21 DAVID H. MILLER.Water at the Surface of the Earth:An Introduction to Ecosystem Hydrodynamics. 1977
Volume 22 JOSEPH W. CHAMBERLAIN. Theory of Planetary Atmospheres: An Introduction to Their Physics and
Chemistry 1978*
Volume 23 J
AMES
R. HOLTON. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 2nd Edition. 1979*
Volume 24 A
RNETT
S. DENNIS. Weather Modification by Cloud Seeding. 1980*
Volume 25 R
OBERT
G. FLEAGLE and JOOST
A. BUSINGER.An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics, 2nd Edition. 1980*
Volume 26 K
UO
-NAN LIOU.An Introduction to Atmospheric Radiation. 1980*
Volume 27 D
AVID H. MILLER. Energy at the Surface of the Earth:An Introduction to the Energetics of Ecosystems. 1981
Volume 28 HELMUT G. LANDSBERG. The Urban Climate. 1991
Volume 29 M. I. BUDKYO. The Earth’s Climate: Past and Future. 1982*
Volume 30 ADRIAN
E. GILL. Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics. 1982
Volume 31 P
AOLO
LANZANO. Deformations of an Elastic Earth. 1982*
Volume 32 RONALD T. M
ERRILL AND MICHAEL W. M CELHINNY. The Earth’s Magnetic Field: Its History, Origin, and
Planetary Perspective. 1983*
Volume 33 J
OHN S. L
EWIS AND R
ONALD G. PRINN. Planets and Their Atmospheres: Origin and Evolution. 1983
Volume 34 R
OLF MEISSNER.The Continental Crust:A Geophysical Approach. 1986
Volume 35 M. U. SAGITOV
,B.BODKI,V.S.NAZARENKO, AND KH.G.TADZHIDINOV. Lunar Gravimetry. 1986
Volume 36 J
OSEPH W. C HAMBERLAIN AND DONALD M. HUNTEN.Theory of Planetary Atmospheres, 2nd Edition. 1987
Volume 37 J. A. JACOBS. The Earth’s Core, 2nd Edition. 1987*
Volume 38 J. R. APEL. Principles of Ocean Physics. 1987
Volume 39 MARTIN A. UMAN.The Lightning Discharge. 1987*
Volume 40 DAVID G. ANDREWS,JAMES R. HOLTON, AND CONWAY B. LEOVY. Middle Atmosphere Dynamics. 1987
Volume 41 P
ETER WARNECK. Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere. 1988*
Volume 42 S. PAL ARYA. Introduction to Micrometeorology. 1988*
Volume 43 MICHAEL C. KELLEY. The Earth’s Ionosphere. 1989*
Volume 44 WILLIAM R. COTTON AND RICHARD A. ANTHES. Storm and Cloud Dynamics. 1989
Volume 45 WILLIAM MENKE. Geophysical Data Analysis: Discrete Inverse Theory, Revised Edition. 1989
Volume 46 S. GEORGE PHILANDER. El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation. 1990
Volume 47 ROBERT A. BROWN. Fluid Mechanics of the Atmosphere. 1991
Volume 48 JAMES R. HOLTON.An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 3rd Edition. 1992
Volume 49 ALEXANDER A. KAUFMAN. Geophysical Field Theory and Method.
Part A: Gravitational, Electric, and Magnetic Fields. 1992*
Part B: Electromagnetic Fields I. 1994*
Part C: Electromagnetic Fields II. 1994*
Volume 50 SAMUEL S. BUTCHER,GORDON H. ORIANS, Robert J. CHARLSON, AND GORDON V. W OLFE. Global
Biogeochemical Cycles. 1992
Volume 51 B
RIAN EVANS AND TENG-FONG WONG. Fault Mechanics and Transport Properties of Rocks. 1992
P732951-IGS.qxd 9/12/05 7:51 PM Page 2
Volume 52 R
OBERT E. HUFFMAN. Atmospheric Ultraviolet Remote Sensing. 1992
Volume 53 ROBERT A. HOUZE,JR. Cloud Dynamics. 1993
Volume 54 PETER V. H OBBS. Aerosol-Cloud-Climate Interactions. 1993
Volume 55 S. J. G
IBOWICZ AND A. KIJKO.An Introduction to Mining Seismology. 1993
Volume 56 DENNIS
L. HARTMANN. Global Physical Climatology. 1994
Volume 57 M
ICHAEL
P. RYA N. Magmatic Systems. 1994
Volume 58 T
HORNE
LAY AND TERRY C. W
ALLACE. Modern Global Seismology. 1995
Volume 59 D
ANIEL S. WILKS. Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences. 1995
Volume 60 FREDERIK NEBEKER. Calculating the Weather. 1995
Volume 61 MURRY L. SALBY. Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics. 1996
Volume 62 J
AMES P. MCCALPIN. Paleoseismology. 1996
Volume 63 R
ONALD
T. MERRILL,MICHAEL W. M CELHINNY, AND PHILLIP L. MCFADDEN. The Magnetic Field of the
Earth: Paleomagnetism, the Core, and the Deep Mantle. 1996
Volume 64 N
EIL D. O
PDYKE AND JAMES E. T. CHANNELL. Magnetic Stratigraphy. 1996
Volume 65 J
UDITH A. CURRY AND
P
ETER J. WEBSTER.Thermodynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans. 1998
Volume 66 L
AKSHMI H. KANTHA AND
CAROL
ANNE CLAYSON. Numerical Models of Oceans and Oceanic Processes.
2000
Volume 67 L
AKSHMI H. KANTHA AND
CAROL
ANNE CLAYSON. Small Scale Processes in Geophysical Fluid Flows. 2000
Volume 68 R
AYMOND S. BRADLEY. Paleoclimatology, 2nd Edition. 1999
Volume 69 LEE-LUENG Fu AND ANNY CAZANAVE. Satellite Altimetry and Earth Sciences: A Handbook of Techniques
and Applications. 2000
Volume 70 D
AVID A. RANDALL. General Circulation Model Development: Past, Present, and Future. 2000
Volume 71 PETER WARNECK. Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere, 2nd Edition. 2000
Volume 72 M
ICHAEL C. JACOBSON,ROBERT J. CHARLSON,HENNING RODHE, AND GORDON H. ORIANS. Earth System
Science: From Biogeochemical Cycles to Global Change. 2000
Volume 73 M
ICHAEL W. M CELHINNY AND PHILLIP L. MCFADDEN. Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans. 2000
Volume 74 ANDREW E. DESSLER.The Chemistry and Physics of Stratospheric Ozone. 2000
Volume 75 BRUCE DOUGLAS,MICHAEL KEARNEY, AND STEPHEN LEATHERMAN. Sea Level Rise: History and
Consequences. 2000
Volume 76 R
OMAN TEISSEYRE AND EUGENIUSZ MAJEWSKI. Earthquake Thermodynamics and Phase Transformations
in the Interior. 2001
Volume 77 G
EROLD SIEDLER,JOHN CHURCH, AND JOHN GOULD. Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and
Modelling The Global Ocean. 2001
Volume 78 R
OGER A. PIELKE SR. Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling, 2nd Ed. 2001
Volume 79 S. PAL ARYA. Introduction to Micrometeorology. 2001
Volume 80 BARRY SALTZMAN. Dynamical Paleoclimatology: Generalized Theory of Global Climate Change. 2002
Volume 81A WILLIAM H. K. LEE,HIROO KANAMORI,PAUL JENNINGS, AND CARL KISSLINGER. International Handbook
of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology, Part A. 2002
Volume 81B W
ILLIAM H. K. LEE,HIROO KANAMORI,PAUL JENNINGS, AND CARL KISSLINGER. International Handbook
of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology, Part B. 2003
P732951-IGS.qxd 9/12/05 7:51 PM Page 3