Trent E.M., Wright P.K. Metal Cutting

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REVIEW QUESTIONS 433

• i) the optimum tool life, T*

• ii) the optimum cutting speed, V*

• iii) the optimum cutting time per component, T

• iv) the minimum cost per component, C*

15b. In a production turning shop, past records have shown that the tool life varies with speed

and feed (and single pass - depth of cut, d = 1.5mm.) as shown below:

Derive an expression of the form, T = , and estimate the tool life for this operation at a

speed of 155 m min

-1

and feed of 0.15 mm per rev. Outline the assumptions used to obtain this

estimate.

15c. A piece of stainless steel is to be finish machined in a single pass operation. The dimen-

sions of the bar are 150 mm in length and 50 mm in diameter. The ASM Handbook tables are

consulted for the material and the tool life relation is given by

(14. 13)

The cost of the cutting edge of the tool is 40 cents and the {operator + machine} costs are 8

cents per min. It takes the operator 1 minute to change the tool and the largest feed rate for an

acceptable surface finish is 0.3 mm per rev.

Use the equations to calculate

•i) the optimum tool life

•ii) the optimum speed

•iii) the optimum cutting time per component

•iv) the minimum cost per component when = 20 seconds.

TABLE 14.1 Machining data

Speed m min

-1

Feed mm per rev. Tool life (min.)

140 0.1 110

170 0.1 37

140 0.2 40

n–

------

n–

------

8.3

x10

4.34

1.95

-----------------------=

434 EXERCISES FOR STUDENTS

14.2 INTERACTIVE FURTHER WORK ON THE SHEAR PLANE

Use Netscape with Java capability to access <http://www.halcyon.com/sandstr/

ApTool.html>. Dr. Sandstrom of The Boeing Company has built an interesting Java applet that

investigates the variables in the Ernst and Merchant theory of metal-cutting.

Print out

the chip formation for the following cases. Also complete the table.

Rake Angle Friction Coefficient Friction Angle Shear Angle

(degrees) (0 to 1) write in (degs) write in (degs)

+45 0

+45 0.5

+45 1.0

+6 0

+6 0.5

+6 1.0

-6 0

-6 0.5

-6 1.0

-4 20

-42 1.0

1. Note: to print from a Webpage first highlight and copy the information into an already open “wordprocessing file”

on the desktop and then print from there.

CHAPTER 15 BIBLIOGRAPHY

AND SELECTED

WEB-SITES

15.1 INTRODUCTION

1. Further reading is given under the following headings:

• Special texts/collections on metal cutting

• General texts on manufacturing that include chapters on metal cutting

• Texts that link to rapid prototyping

• Texts that link to forming

• Suggested general reading

• Suggested subscriptions

15.2 TEXTS ON THE METAL CUTTING PROCESS

2. Armarego, E.J.A., and Brown, R.H., “The Machining of Metals”, Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey (1969)

3. Boothroyd, G., “Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools”, Marcel Dekker, New

York (1989)

4. Cook, N.H., “Manufacturing Analysis”, Addison Wesley, Reading MA (1966)

5. Hoffman, E.G., “Jig and Fixture Design”, Delmar Press, New York (1985)

6. Hoyle, G. “High Speed Steels”, Butterworths, London (1988)

7. King, A.G. and Wheildon, W.M., “Ceramics in Machining Processes”, Academic Press,

New York (1966)

8. Klamecki, B.E., and Weinmann, K.J., “Fundamental Issues in Machining”, PED-Vol. 43,

(Proceedings presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of ASME in Dallas Texas), The

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York NY (1990)

436 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SELECTED WEB-SITES

9. Komanduri, R., “Symposium on US Contributions to Machining and Grinding Research in the

20th Century”. Reprinted from Applied Mechanics Reviews Volume 46, Number 3, March

1993 and available from the ASME Book Number AMR 126. (1993).

10.Komanduri, R., “Tool Materials” in The Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology”

Fourth Edition, Volume 24., John Wiley and Sons, New York (1997)

11. Loladze, T.N., “Toughness and Wear Resistance of Cutting Tools”, Machinostroenie, Moscow

(1982)

12.Oxley, P.L.B., “The Mechanics of Machining: An Analytical Approach to Assessing Machin-

ability”, Halsted Press, New York (1989)

13.Shaw, M.C., “Metal Cutting Principles” Oxford Series on Advanced Manufacturing Oxford

Science Publications, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1991)

14.Stephenson, D.A., and Stevenson, R., “Materials Issues in Machining III and the Physics of

Machining Processes III” TMS Press (Minerals, Metals and Materials Society) Warrendale

PA., 15086 (1996)

15.Zorev, N.N., “Metal Cutting Mechanics”, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966) (English transla-

tion)

15.3 GENERAL TEXTS THAT INCLUDE METAL CUTTING

1. DeGarmo, E. P., Black, J.T., and Kohser, R. A., “Materials and Processes in Manufacturing”,

8th Edition, Prentice Hall, New York (1997)

2. Groover, M.P., “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,

New Jersey (1996)

3. Kalpakjian, S., “Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, Third Edition, Addison

Wesley Longman, Menlo Park, CA (1997)

4. Koenig, D.T., “Manufacturing Engineering: Principles for Optimization” Hemisphere Pub-

lishing Corporation, Washington, New York and London (1987)

5. Merchant, M.E., “The Factory of the Future - Technological Aspects” In Towards the Factory

of the Future, PED-Vol. 1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, NY. pp 71-82 (1980)

6. Pressman, R.S., and Williams, J.E., “Numerical Control and Computer-Aided Manufactur-

ing”, Wiley and Sons, New York (1977)

7. Schey, J.A., “Introduction to Manufacturing Processes”, McGraw Hill, New York.

8. Wysk, R.A., Chang T.C., and Wang, H.P., “Computer Aided Manufacturing”, 2nd Edition,

Prentice-Hall Inc, New Jersey (1998)

15.4 SELECTED TEXTS ON RAPID PROTOTYPING

1. Beaman, J. J., “Solid Freeform Fabrication: A New Direction in Manufacturing: with

Research and Applications in Thermal Laser Processing”, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Aus-

tin (1997)

2. Jacobs, P.F., “Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing: Fundamentals of Stereolithography”,

Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, MI (1992)

SELECTED TEXTS ON FORMING 437

3. Jacobs, P.F., “Stereolithography and other Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing Technolo-

gies”, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, MI (1996)

4. NSF Solid Freeform Fabrication Workshop on “New Paradigms For Manufacturing”, Held in

Arlington VA., May 2-4 (1994)

5. NSF Solid Freeform Fabrication Workshop II, on “Design Methodologies for Solid Freeform

Fabrication”, Held at CMU, Pittsburgh, PA., June 5-6 (1995)

15.5 SELECTED TEXTS ON FORMING

1. Backofen, W.A., “Deformation processing”, Addison-Wesley, MA. (1972)

2. Chryssolouris, G., “Laser Machining” Springer-Verlag New York (1991)

3. Johnson, W., and Mellor, P.B., “Engineering Plasticity”, Van Nostrand Reinhold, London

(1973)

4. Kobayashi, S., Oh, S., and Altan, T., “Metal Forming and the Finite Element Method”, Oxford

University Press, Oxford (1989)

5. Pittman, J.F.T., Wood, R.D., Alexander, J.M., and Zienkiewicz, O.C., “Numerical Methods in

Industrial Forming Operations”, Pineridge Press, Swansea, UK (1982)

6. Richmond, O., “Concurrent design of products and their manufacturing processes based upon

models of evolving physicoeconomic state.”, Simulation of Materials Processing: Theory,

Methods and Applications, ed. Shen and Dawson, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 153-155 (1995)

7. Rowe, G.W., “Principles of Industrial Metalworking Processes” Arnold, London (1977)

8. Sachs, G., 1955, “Principles and methods of sheet-metal fabrication”, Reinhold Publishing

Corporation, New York (1955)

15.6 SUGGESTED BACKGROUND READING

1. Ayres, R.U. and Miller, S.M., “Robotics: Applications and Social Implications” Ballinger

Press, Cambridge MA (1983)

2. Womak, J., Jones, D., and Roos, D., “The Machine that Changed the World”, Rawson Associ-

ates, New York (1990)

3. Rosenberg, N., “Perspectives on Technology”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

(1967)

4. Thomas, R.J., “What Machines Can’t Do” University of California Press, Berkeley, Los

Angeles, London, See in particular Chapter 7, The Politics and Aesthetics of Manufacturing,

pp. 246-258 (1994)

5. Ulrich, K.T., and Eppinger, S.D., “Product Design and Development” McGraw Hill Inc., New

York (1995)

15.7 RECOMMENDED SUBSCRIPTIONS

1. The Economist magazine which often includes special “pull-out sections” on “high-technol-

ogy”: for example, see the June 20th 1998 copy which contains “Manufacturing”.

2. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture

438 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SELECTED WEB-SITES

3. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering (ASME)

4. Journal of Tribology (ASME, New York)

5. Journal of Materials (ASME, New York)

6. Journal of Manufacturing Systems (SME, Dearborn)

7. Journal of Manufacturing Processes (SME, Dearborn)

8. Transactions of the North American Manufacturing Research Institute (SME, Dearborn)

9. Machining Science and Technology (Marcel Dekker)

15.8 WEB-SITES of INTEREST

1. “Merchant’s shear angle solution” by Sandstrom, D., <http://www.halcyon.com/sandstr/

ApTool.html>

2. “Modular fixturing on the WWW” by Goldberg, K., <http://riot.ieor.berkeley.edu>, and then

click on “Fixturenet”. Also see:

R. Brost and K. Goldberg, A Complete Algorithm for Designing Modular Fixtures Using

Modular Components, IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 12, (1), February,

(1996)

R. Wagner and G. Castanotto and K. Goldberg, FixtureNet: Interactive Computer Aided

Design via the WWW, International Journal on Human-Computer Studies, 46, 773 August

(1997)

3. “EMSIM for predicting form errors” by DeVor et al., <http://mtamri.me.uiuc.edu/soft-

ware.testbed.html>. Click on “EMSIM”

4. “Green machining analyzer & environmental impact analysis” by Sheng, P. and colleagues,

<http://greenmfg.me.berkeley.edu/gshell/> (to obtain a password send email to psh-

eng@me.berkeley.edu)

5. “A manufacturing analysis service” by Smith, C.S., <http://cybercut.berkeley.edu> If neces-

sary, click on “Research” and then “The Manufacturing Analysis Service”

6. “Comparisons between EMISM and experiments” Stori, J.A., and Wright, P.K., <http://mad-

max.me.berkeley.edu/webparam/demo2>

7. “CODEF, The Consortium on Deburring and Edge Finishing” by Dornfeld, D. et al, <http://

dnclab.berkeley.edu/codef/>

15.9 WEB-SITE for “Metal Cutting”

A site for this edition has been created at:

<http://madmax.me.berkeley.edu/metalcutting>

It contains the links to the other sites above. All readers are invited to send related links and

topics for inclusion. Thank you in advance!

pwright@robocop.berkeley.edu

CHAPTER 16 INDEX

Abrasion wear, 150, 159, 161, 162, 200, 242

Aero-space industry, 235

use of nickel-based alloys in, 301

Air, as cutting lubricant, 325

ALGOR, 394

Alloying elements, 59, 102, 269, 308

Alumina, 227-249, 288

CVD coatings,172, 213, 243

for throw-away tool tips, 213

inclusions in steel, 308

tools, 172, 213

Aluminum and its alloys, 254

free-machining additives, 257

machinability, 254-258

tool forces, 255

Aluminum bronze, machinability, 266

Amborite, 236

Attrition wear, 157-159, 162, 199

Austenite formation, 119

Austenitic stainless steel, 290

machinability of, 290

tool forces, 355

Ball indentations, 184

Bonding of metals, 38

Boring, 12

Boundary lubrication conditions, 324

Brass, free-machining, 261

leaded, 265

machinability, 258

tool forces, 77

Brittleness, 175-225

Broaching, 18

Built-up edge, 41-44, 102, 277, 349

aluminum alloys, 257

cast iron, 295

effects of cutting speed on, 76, 349

effects of lubricant on, 332

formation of, 41-44

in machining of steel, 45, 277, 349

nickel-based alloys, 300-302

Burrs, 396

BZN, 236

Carbides, 175-225

diamond indentation hardness, 177

in high speed steel, 140, 144

hot hardness tests, 178

melting point,175-185

Carbon, 143

Carbon steel tools, 133-138

Carbon tetrachloride, as lubricant, 329

Cast iron, machinability of, 293

Cemented carbides, 175-225

440 INDEX

classification according to use, 182

composition, 180-225

compression strength, 180

CVD coated tips, 211-215, 412

development of, 212

fracture toughness, 215

grain size, 180

hardness, 180-225

iron-bonded, 176

machining charts, 192

niobium, 203

properties, 175, 177, 412-416

specific gravity, 180

steel cutting grades, 202-205, 206-209

straight grades, 175-180

structure, 179, 209

TiC-Ni alloys, 211

transverse rupture strength, 180

WC-Co alloys, 177

WC-TiC-TaC-Co alloys, 205-209

wear mechanisms, 208, 416

Young’s modulus, 205

Ceramic tools, 94, 227

Ceramics, 94, 227

Cermets, 177

Charpy test, 147

Chemical vapor deposition, see CVD, 211

Cherry-red heat, 133

Chip flow, under conditions of seizure, 105

Chip formation, forms of chip, 23-27, 50-54, 218-

219, 348

heat in, 99-111

shape, 23, 219, 428

study of techniques, 24

temperature of body, 99

thickness, 26, 219

Chip/tool interface, 29-39, 348

Chromium in high speed steel, 143

Clearance angle, 10-12

Clearance face, 12

heat flow, 112

Coated steel tools, 169, 411-413

Coated tools, 211-215

Cobalt, see also Tungsten carbide-cobalt alloys

in cemented carbides, 175, 198

in high speed steels, 143

Coefficient of friction, 29, 232-236

Collar formation, 53

Compax tools, 241-242

Compressive strength of tool materials, 136, 180,

228

carbon steel, 136, 146

cemented carbides, 180-184, 411-414

ceramics, 228, 234

elevated temperature, 146

heat treatment, 145-147

high speed steel, 145

room temperature, 145

tungsten carbide-cobalt alloys, 135

Compressive stress, 153, 186

plastic deformation, 153

Contact area on tool rake face, alloying elements,

cutting pure metals, 60-62, 251-310

definition, 59, 75, 219

influence of, 219, 251-310

lubricants, 325

measurement, 59-61, 219

Coolants, 19, 311-338

see also Cutting fluids, potential and limitations,

313

Copper, alloys, 258

free-cutting additives, 261-268

machinability, 258-268

tool forces, 77, 258

Cost of metal cutting, 7, 139, 246, 252, 340

Cratering,

in carbide tools,188, 208

effect of lubricants on, 334

in high speed steel tools, 150, 155

influence of speed and feed, 188

influence of titanium carbide in tool, 202, 205

in machining of steel, 202, 274

Cubic boron nitride, 236-237

Cupro-nickel, machinability of, 267

Cut, depth of, 10

Cutters, milling, 16, 377

Cutting, conditions of seizure, 34

conditions of sliding, 31

Cutting fluids, 311-338

see also Coolants , 313

use of very high pressure jets, 337

Cutting force, 57

when cutting different metals, 57-67, 251-310

441

definition, 57

influence of alloying elements, 74, 76, 78

influence of cutting speed, 77, 339-369

measurement, 57

relation to shear plane angle, 58, 73

Cutting oils, 311-338

Cutting, orthogonal, 21-22

quick-stop, 36

semi-orthogonal, 24, 50-54

Cutting speed, 10-11, 126, 210

high, effects at, 339-369

and tool force, 77, 339-369

and tool materials, 245-248

tool temperature and, 126

Cutting tool materials, 245-248, 412

alumina-based composites, 227-235

carbides, 175-226

diamond, 239-245

steel, 132-172

CVD, 169, 211, 306

coatings, 173, 211

CVD-coated tools, 169-173, 211

De Beers, 238

Deformation of tools, 339

cemented carbide tools, 187

when cutting cast iron, 293-295

high speed steel tools, 146

Deoxidation, in steel making, 415

Diamond, 94

Diamond indentation hardness test, 184, 187

Diamond tools, 239

polycrystalline, 241

Diffusion wear, 186

carbide tools, 186-190

high speed steel tools, 155-157

tool life, 412

Discontinuous chip, 349

Dislocation damping, 345

Drilling, 13

cutting fluid for, 313

Dry cutting, 335

Economics, 1-5, 229, 246, 340

Electrical fittings, production of, using copper-

based alloys, 261

Electron microscopy, 31-34

EMSIM, 371-381

End clearance face, 10

End mills, 15

Ernst’s chip types, 348

Eulerian FEA, 392

FEA, 385

Feed, 10-11

definition, 10

influence on tool forces, 72

influence on tool temperature, 125

relation to tool wear, 163-166

Feed force definition, 57

different metals, 75-79, 282

influence of cutting speed, 91

influence of tool geometry, 75-79

relation to contact area, 95

Flank, 10, 50-54

Flank wear, 50-54, 195

effect of lubricants on, 333

influence of cutting speed, 195, 199

land, 50-54

rate of, 288-296

in tool testing, 163-166

wear mechanisms, 154-160, 171, 199-201

Flow pattern, 41

Flow-zone, 41, 188, 263

definition, 41

forces in, 342

as heat source, 111

shear strain, 105

thickness of, 41, 111

Flutes, 13

Forces, 57-60, 269

Formation of chip, 21-22

Forming tools, 14

Fracture, 186

of tools, 186, 200

Fracture toughness tests, 147

tungsten carbide-cobalt alloys, 181

Fracture toughness value, 147, 180

Free-cutting steels, 282-293

composition of, 279

Free-machining alloys, 257, 264

Friction welding, 95

Frictional forces coefficient of, 29

when cutting aluminum alloys, 253-257

in cutting metals and alloys, 59

vs cutting speed for copper and brass, 259

in flow-zone, 104-107

442 INDEX

at tool/work interface, 29-40, 95

Gear shaping, cutting fluid for, 313

General Electric Co. (GEC), 241

Grades in steel cutting, 182, 209

Grain size, 180

in cemented carbides, 180-185

in ceramic tools, 227-229

in high speed steel, 134

Grinding, cutting fluid for, 313

Grooving wear, 161-162

Gun metal, machinability of, 265

Hafnium nitride, HfN, 211

coating, 211

Hardening, precipitation, 141

secondary, 141

Hardness, carbides, 180

cemented carbides, 180

ceramic tools, 234

changes in, 138

cubic boron nitride, 236

diamond, 239-242

diamond indentation test, 117

flake graphite cast iron, 293

hot hardness, 144, 185

measurement of, 118, 133

red, 132-140, 146

steel work-materials, 271

tests, 116-120

tool steels, 133

Heat, 98-113

in areas of sliding, 113

in chip formation, 98-100

in cutting, 97-130

at tool clearance face, 112

at tool/work interface, 98-113

Heat treatment, 138

steel work-materials, 271

tool steels,140

Helix angle, 13

HfN, 211

High-speed machining, 339-369

High-speed steel tools, 132-172, 197

conditions of use, 139, 166

heat treatment, 140

further development, 167

powder metallurgy, 167

properties, 144, 149

specifications, 141

structure and composition, 140, 148

tool life, 165

tool-life testing, 163

wear mechanisms, 150-162

HIP, 167

Hobbing, cutting fluid for, 313

Hobbing of gears, 19

Hodograph, 68

Hot hardness, 144, 178, 365

of cemented carbides, 185, 365

Hot isostatic pressing units, 167, 227

HV, 118

Impact tests, 147

Indexable tool inserts, 215-223

Interface temperatures, flow-zone, 110-112

International Organization for Standardization,

184

Iron, see also Cast iron, 269, 293

machinability of, 269

ISO system for classification of carbides, 182-184

Izod test, 147

K series, in ISO, 183

classification, 182, 207

Knoop indenter, 239

Lagrangian FEA, 390

Lead, cutting forces and stress, 84

in free-machining aluminum, 257

in free-machining brass, 264

in free-machining steel, 285

Life of tools, 343, 417

Lubricants, 19, 311-338

carbon tetrachloride, 329

effect on wear, 328-330

water-based, 312, 313

M series, in ISO classification, 182, 207

Machinability, 251-310, 415

of aluminum, 254-257

of aluminum bronze, 266

of austenitic stainless steel, 290, 339

of cast iron, 293

of copper and brass, 258-268

criteria of, 251, 307

of cupro-nickel, 267

effect of formation of built-up edge, 102

effect of alloying metals on, 251-310

of free-cutting steels, 278