The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China 1912-1949, Part 2
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY
OF CHINA
General
Editors
DENIS TWITCHETT
and
JOHN
K.
FAIRBANK
Volume
13
Republican China 1912—1949, Part
2
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF
CHINA
Volume
13
Republican China 1912—1949, Part
2
edited by
JOHN
K.
FAIRBANK
and
ALBERT FEUERWERKER
I
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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IOOI
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http://www.cambridge.org
© Cambridge University Press 1986
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1986
Reprinted 1990, 2002
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A
catalogue
record for this
book
is available from
the British
Library
Library of
Congress Cataloguing
in
Publication
data
(Revised for volume 13)
Main entry under title:
The Cambridge history of China.
Vol. 13 edited by John K. Fairbank and
Albert Feuerwerker.
Includes bibliographies and indexes.
Contents:
—
v. 3. Sui and Tang China,
589-906, pt 1.
—
v. 10. Late Ch'ing, 1800—
19u.pt. i.-v. 13. Republican China, 1912-1949.pt 2.
1.
China - History. I. Twitchett, Denis Crispin.
II.
Fairbank, John King, 1907- . HI. Feuerwerker, Albert
DS735.C3145 95»'°3 7<>-*9
8
5
2
ISBNO 521 24338 6
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE
As the modern world grows more interconnected, historical understanding
of
it
becomes ever more necessary
and the
historian's task ever more
complex. Fact and theory affect each other even as sources proliferate and
knowledge increases. Merely
to
summarize what
is
known becomes
an
awesome task, yet a factual basis of knowledge is increasingly essential for
historical thinking.
Since the beginning
of
the century, the Cambridge histories have
set
a pattern in the English-reading world for multi-volume series containing
chapters written by specialists under the guidance of volume editors. The
Cambridge Modern
History, planned
by
Lord Acton, appeared
in
sixteen
volumes between 1902 and 1912. It was followed by
The Cambridge
Ancient
History, The Cambridge Medieval History, The Cambridge History
of
English
Literature,
and Cambridge Histories of
India,
of Poland, and of the British
Empire. The original
Modern History
has now been replaced by The New
Cambridge
Modern History
in
twelve volumes, and The Cambridge Economic
History
of
Europe
is
now being completed. Other Cambridge Histories
include
a
history
of
Islam,
of
Arabic literature,
of
Iran,
of
Judaism,
of
Africa, and
of
China.
In the case
of
China, Western historians face
a
special problem.
The
history of Chinese civilization is more extensive and complex than that of
any single Western nation, and only slightly less ramified than the history
of European civilization
as a
whole.
The
Chinese historical record
is
immensely detailed and extensive, and Chinese historical scholarship has
been highly developed and sophisticated for many centuries. Yet until recent
decades the study of China in the West, despite the important pioneer work
of European sinologists, had hardly progressed beyond the translation of
some few classical historical texts, and the outline history
of
the major
dynasties and their institutions.
Recently Western scholars have drawn more fully upon
the
rich
traditions of historical scholarship in China and also in Japan, and greatly
advanced both our detailed knowledge of past events and institutions, and
also our critical understanding
of
traditional historiography.
In
addition,
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
VI
GENERAL EDITORS* PREFACE
the present generation of Western historians of China can also draw upon
the new outlooks and techniques of modern Western historical scholarship,
and upon recent developments in the social sciences, while continuing
to
build upon
the
solid foundations
of
rapidly progressing European,
Japanese
and
Chinese sinological studies. Recent historical events, too,
have given prominence
to
new problems, while throwing into question
many older conceptions. Under these multiple impacts
the
Western
revolution
in
Chinese studies
is
steadily gathering momentum.
When The
Cambridge History
of
China
was first planned in 1966, the aim
was
to
provide
a
substantial account
of
the history
of
China
as a
bench
mark
for
the Western history-reading public:
an
account
of
the current
state
of
knowledge in six volumes. Since then the out-pouring of current
research, the application of new methods, and the extension of scholarship
into new fields, have further stimulated Chinese historical studies. This
growth is indicated by the fact that the History has now become a planned
fifteen volumes,
but
will still leave
out
such topics
as
the history
of
art
and
of
literature, many aspects of economics and technology, and all the
riches
of
local history.
The striking advances
in
our knowledge
of
China's past over the last
decade will continue and accelerate. Western historians
of
this great and
complex subject
are
justified
in
their efforts
by the
needs
of
their own
peoples
for
greater and deeper understanding
of
China. Chinese history
belongs to the world, not only as a right and necessity, but also as a subject
of compelling interest.
JOHN
K.
FAIRBANK
DENIS TWITCHETT
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
General
editors'
preface Page
v
List
of
maps
xiii
List of
tables
xvi
Preface
to
volume
xviii
1 Introduction: perspectives on modern China's history
by MARY B. RANKIN,
Washington,
DC, JOHN K.
FAIRBANK,
Professor
of History, Emeritus,
Harvard
University,
and ALBERT FEUERWERKER,
Professor
of History,
University
of
Michigan,
Ann Arbor i
Change and continuity: periodization 4
Growth and change in the Chinese economy 11
Changes in social structure and behaviour 29
State and society in the revolutionary process 49
2 China's international relations 1911—1931
bySmNKiCHi
ET
6,
Professor
of
International
delations,
Aqyama Gakuin
University,
Tokyo 74
Context: decline and fall of the Ch'ing empire as an East
Asian regional order 74
Japan's rise to power in Manchuria 82
Japan's Twenty-one Demands 92
Japanese influence and China's participation in the First
World War 100
The Washington Conference and China 103
Moscow's dual approach to China 107
China's Nationalist Revolution and the powers 111
3 Nationalist China during the Nanking decade 1927-1937
by LLOYD E. EASTMAN,
Professor
of History,
University
of
Illinois,
Urbana
116
The initial consolidation of power 116
vii
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Vlll CONTENTS
The struggle in the provinces 124
Factors contributing to Chiang Kai-shek's political
dominance 130
Ideology, structure and functioning of the Nanking
regime 134
Kuomintang factions 141
Achievements of the Nationalist regime 147
China's new mood 1936—7 160
An assessment of Nationalist rule during the Nanking
decade 163
4 The Communist movement 1927-1937
by JEROME CH'EN, Professor ojHistory, York
University,
Toronto
168
Reconstitution and leadership of the party 168
Creation of rural Soviets 183
The search for a strategy 198
Destruction of the Soviets 204
Underground work in the 'white area' 216
Preparation for the second united front 220
5 The agrarian system
by RAMON H. MYERS,
Hoover
Institution
on
War,
Revolution
and
Peace,
Palo Alto 230
Aspects of the agrarian system 233
Commercialization of agriculture 250
The agrarian crisis 256
6 Peasant movements
by LUCIEN BIANCO,
Professeur
a I'Ecole
des
Hautes Etudes
en
Sciences
Sociales,
Paris (translated by Janet Lloyd) 270
Spontaneous resistance to rents and taxes 273
Spontaneous peasant agitation: typology and
characteristics 288
Peasants and Communists: the unequal alliance 305
7 The development of local government
by PHILIP A. KUHN,
Professor
of History
and
of East Asian
Languages
and
Civilisations,
Harvard
University 3 29
The role of elites in local government 330
Regional regimes 340
Early policies of Nanking on local administration 344
The rural reconstruction movement
3 5 3
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
IX
8
The
growth
of the
academic community 1912-1949
by
E-TU
ZEN
SUN,
Professor
of
Chinese
History,
Pennsylvania
State
University
361
The emergence of modern institutions 1898-1928 363
Higher education and nation-building during the Nanking
decade 387
War and postwar changes 1937-1949 412
9 Literary trends: the road to revolution 1927—1949
by LEO OU-FAN LEE,
Professor
of
Chinese
Literature,
University
of
Chicago
421
Literature of the thirties 1927—1937 421
The League of Left-wing Writers and the polemics on
literature 428
Literary creativity and social crisis 445
War and revolution 1937-1949 466
The Yenan Forum 475
On the eve of revolution 1945-1949 486
10 Japanese aggression and China's international position
1931-1949
byAiciRA IRIYE, Professor of History, University
of
Chicago
492
The world economic crisis: China's marginality
492
The Manchurian incident: Japan's revisionist militarism
1931-1932
499
The collapse
of
internationalism
5
04
Japan's attempt
to get
regional cooperation 1933—1937
509
Power configurations during
the
Sino-Japanese
War
i937-
I
94i
519
China
and
Japan
in the
Second World
War
1941-1945
530
China's postwar eclipse 1945-1949
540
11 Nationalist China during
the
Sino-Japanese
War
1937-1945
by
LLOYD
E.
EASTMAN
547
Initial campaigns
and
strategy 1937—1939
547
China's mobilization
for war 557
Deterioration 1939—1945:
the
military
566
Foreign military
aid
5
76
Japan's Ichigo offensive
1944 580
The inflation disaster
5
84
The industrial sector
592
Political debilitation
601
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
X CONTENTS
12 The Chinese Communist movement during the
Sino-Japanese War 1937—1945
by
LYMAN VAN SLYKE,
Professor
of
History,
Stanford
University 609
I The early war years 1937-1938 610
Attitude toward the Kuomintang: the united front 611
Military strategy and tactics 613
Leaders and leadership 615
Organizational structure and activities 619
Japanese invasion and Chinese initial responses 626
Formation of base areas 631
II The middle years 1939-1943 658
'Friction' with the Nationalists 659
The New Fourth Army incident 665
Japanese consolidation 671
CCP responses: survival and new policies 683
III The last years of the war 1944—1945 705
Operation Ichigo and its consequences 705
Political and military expansion 708
The United States and the Chinese Communists 712
The Seventh Congress 716
The Chinese Communists and the Soviet Union 718
Prospects 721
13 The KMT-CCP conflict 1945-1949
by SUZANNE PEPPER,
Universities Service
Centre, Hong Kong -723
Negotiations
and
American involvement
-723
The decline
of KMT
rule
737
The growth
of
Communist power
y 51
The civil
war
1946-1949
-758
The demise
of the KMT
government
and
failure
of
American policy
-782
14
Mao
Tse-tung's thought
to 1949
by STUART SCHRAM, Professor
of
Politics, School
of
Oriental
and African Studies, University
of
London
-789
From
the
student movement
to the
peasant movement
1917-1927
7
8
9
Party, army
and
masses 1927-1937
g
T
g
National contradictions
and
social contradictions
1937-1940
837
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008