Shani G. Radiation Dosimetry: Instrumentation and Methods
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480
Radiation Dosimetry: Instrumentation and Methods
diamond, 302, 361
advantage of, 366
perturbation effects for, 368
physical parameters of, 365
response of, 369
use of for brachytherapy sources, 370
diode, 364, 366
fission track, 423
passive
bubble, 458
integrating superheated drop, 455
perturbation, 151
schematics of, 397
scintillation, 302
sensitivity, measurement of, 399
silicon, 390
diode, 66, 364
semiconductor, limitation in using, 382
solid-state nuclear track, 466
superheated drop, 423, 451, 452
wall effect, 140
X-ray irradiation of, 398
Determination limit, 261
DF,
see
Distribution factor
Diagnostic radiology, 130, 197
Diamond detector(s), 302, 361
advantage of, 366
perturbation effects for, 368
physical parameters of, 365
response of, 369
use of for brachytherapy sources, 370
Diamond TLDs, 272, 273
Dicentric yield, relationship between acute
exposure and, 9
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, 453, 456
Differential fluence spectrum, 215
Dimensionless dose anisotropy function, 282
Diode
detectors, 364, 366
mean sensitivity of, 391
sensitivity data, 396
Direct calibration method, 281
Directional dose equivalent, 5
Direct ionizing particles, 2
Displacement correction, 101, 155, 160
Distribution factor (DF), 2
DNA
damage, 9
molecule, 77
Domen’s calorimeter, 331, 334
Dose
-to-air chamber factor, 105
all-scatter, 63
backscatter factor, 49, 50
buildup, 253
calibration factors, 392
distribution, 3D, 307
enhancement factor (DEF), 375, 377, 385
equivalent response, ambient, 440
rate, 280
-response curve, for gel concentration, 351
total absorbed, 69
-to-unit density material, 307
-to-water calibration factor, 167
Dosimeter(s)
alanine-polyethylene, 297
aluminum oxide, 285
badge, new environmental TLD, 263
bubble, 452, 454
configuration, 465
energy response of to neutrons, 464
Farmer-type, 126
ferrous benzoic acid xylenol orange in gelatin,
416
Fricke, 349, 351, 403
gas-filled neutron, 423, 436
gel preparation, 411
glow curve of gamma-irradiated, 288
irradiated with alpha particles, 287
LiF thermoluminescence, 248
MOSFET radiation, 372
multichannel tissue-equivalent proportional
counter, 441
neutron
design of, 457
real-time personal, 463
response of MOSFET, 375
solid-state, 460
perturbation, 52
polymer-gel, 401
P-type semiconductor, 381
radiation-charged electret, 208
radiochemistry of FBX liquid, 414
radiochromic film, influence of irradiation
temperature differences on response of, 323
red Perspex, effect of absorbed dose on response
of, 291
solid-state, 391
solution, absorbed dose to, 349
thermoluminescent albedo, 423
type 8855, 263
Dosimetric peak, 252
Dosimetry
beta, 7
brachytherapy, 56
chambers, characteristics of, 202
computational, 433
electron spin resonance, 292, 296, 297
gamma, 6
mailed film, 309
methods, 5–6
calorimetric, 5–6
chemical, 5
Faraday-cup-based, 65
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481
ionization, 5
thermoluminescence, 6
neutron, 7
phantom, 141
photon, 28
protection, 221
proton, 64
radiochromic film, 310
Double-exposure technique, 316
Dual-cavity ESR spectrometer, 293
E
ECHED,
see
European Charged Heavy Particle
Dosimetry Group
Echo time, 407
Edge-on mode, 379
Effective density, 18
Effective dose, underestimating of, 432
Effective window thickness, 117
EIC,
see
Electret ionization chambers
Electret ionization chambers (EIC), 208, 214
Electrical circuits, schematic diagram of, 344
Electrical leakage, 205
Electrode separation, 126
Electron(s)
backscatter coefficient, Monte Carlo values of,
145
backscattering, 77
charge ratio, 159
contamination, from electrons produced outside
phantom, 374
degradation of low-energy, 45
dosimetry, 14, 25
energy
dependence of dose backscatter factor data for,
51
mean, 99
fluence, 75, 77, 149, 273
calculation of, 379
change, 184
perturbation of, 356
-hole recombination, rapid rate of, 362
radius, classical, 43
rest energy, 41
Electron beam
absorbed dose
calibration factors, 23
distribution, 29
intercomparisons in, 172
density, 21
depth-dose distribution, in water, 91
diameters, 163
energy, 332
fluence, 173
graphite calorimeter, 341
irradiation conditions, 94
stopping-power ratios of realistic, 21
Electron spin resonance (ESR), 6, 222, 288, 295
dosimetry, 292, 296, 297
spectrometer, dual-cavity, 293
Emission wavelength, 324, 325
Emulsion(s)
mass attenuation coefficient of, 305
sensitivity, 307
superheated, 461
Endpoint energy, 397
Energy
beta, 279
correction factor, 231
deposition, 338, 352
electron-beam, 332
endpoint, 397
fluence, 2
flux density, 2
lineal, 437
loss straggling, 427
neutron, 251, 431, 464
photon
brachytherapy, 390
increasing recombination effects with
decreasing, 378
proton, 267
range, radiation, 424
transfers, homogeneous distribution of, 79
Equilibrium
cavity fluence, 76
magnetization, 350
Equivalent dose calculation formalism, 282
Error bar, 291
ESR,
see
Electron spin resonance
EULEP,
see
European Late Effects Project Group
European Charged Heavy Particle Dosimetry Group
(ECHED), 65, 99, 337
European Late Effects Project Group (EULEP), 243
Excitation
energy, 41
spectra, 269
Exposure
-calibrated ionization chamber, 85
calibration factor, 38
unit of, 2
Exradin chamber, 157, 175, 197, 349, 350
External detector board, 213
Extrapolation models, 156
F
Faraday-cup-based dosimetry methods, 65
Farmer chamber, 46, 105, 126
FBX,
see
Ferrous sulphate–benzoic acid–xylenol
orange
FBXG,
see
Ferrous benzoic acid xylenol orange in
gelatin
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Radiation Dosimetry: Instrumentation and Methods
Fermi breakup model, 467
Fermi-Eyges
method, 68
profiles, 17
theory, 16
Ferric agarose gel, 412
Ferric-xylenol orange complex, absorbance of, 359
Ferrous benzoic acid xylenol orange in gelatin
(FBXG), 415
dosimeter, 416
optical characteristics of, 415
Ferrous ion(s)
application of, 409
oxidation of, 358, 359
yield, 410
Ferrous sulphate–benzoic acid–xylenol orange
(FBX), 414
Field instrument calibration factor, 36
Film
CEA, 302
digitizers, 326
dosimetry, 301–328
example of photographic film dosimetry,
301–309
radiochromic film dosimetry, 310–328
emulsion, 304
image data files, 308
improved, 322
-processing conditions, 305
processing units, modern, 301
radiochromic
dose-response curves for, 322
optical density of, 326
response of in polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 328
uniformity of improved, 323
sensitivity
dependence of upon field size and depth, 304
LKB densitometer, 320
TLF, 303
Fission track detectors, 423
Fixed-separation plane-parallel ionization
chambers, 118
Fluence
distribution, absolute, 440
factor, 97
-to-kerma conversion factor, 435
perturbation
correction values, 153
factor, 106
Fluorescence
radiation, 40
spectra, of 7-hydroxy-coumarin, 356
Flux density, 1
Focal to chamber distance, 131
Foil-to-film separation distance, 304
Fourier convolution method, 80
Free-ion yield, 183
Fricke
dosimeters, 349, 351
dosimetry, 108, 352
gel
dosimeter, 403
systems, 401
solution, 349, 351, 354
G
GafChromic Dosimetry Media, 311, 312
GafChromic (GC) film, 301, 320, 321
Gamma dosimetry, 6–7
first collision dose, 6–7
point source dose, 6
Gamma-irradiated dosimeters, glow curve of, 288
Gamma irradiation, dose response of samples after,
240
Gamma-ray kermas, 443
Gamma sensitivity, 239, 287
Gas-filled neutron dosimeters, 423, 436
Gaussian approximation, of range-straggling
distribution, 68
Gaussian depth straggling, 70
GC film,
see
GafChromic film
GCA,
see
Glow-curve analysis
Geiger’s rule, 69
Gel
dosimetry, 401–422
application of BANG polymer gel, 416–422
application of ferrous ions, 409–416
basic concepts, 401–409
ferric agarose, 412
pore radius of, 413
preparation, set-up for, 409
strength indicator, 408
Geleijns’ method, 138
General order (GO) model, 268
General recombination, 120
Global stem correction factor, 109
Glow curve(s), 238, 267
analysis (GCA), 221, 222, 262
changes, 264
deconvoluted, 233, 239
gamma-irradiated dosimeters, 288
thermoluminescence, 245, 269, 285
TLD-300 dosimeter, 449
Glutamine, 357, 358
GO model,
see
General order model
Gradient correction, 158
Graphite calorimeter, 340
Graphite dag, 207
Grayscale image file format, 308
Greening’s equation, 121
Gyromagnetic ratio, 402
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483
H
Half-value
layer (HVL), 13, 28, 217, 232
thickness (HVT), 424
Halocarbons, emulsions of, 454
Hamamatsu photodiode response, 379, 380
Harshaw/Filtrol software, 232
HCP,
see
Heavy charged particles
Head-scatter
factor, 111
measurements, 112, 113
Heat
defect, 333, 338, 346
-diffusion theory, 106
-loss corrections, 332
Heating
circuits, 342
rate, 232
Heavy charged particles (HCP), 4
Helium-neon laser densitometer, 324
Hewlett Packard Faxitron x-ray system, 210
Hit distribution, 81
HK chamber, cross-sectional diagram of, 204
Holt chamber, 166, 175
Horvath-Lin fluid, 456
Human muscle tissue, BANG-2 gel of, 409
HVL,
see
Half-value layer
HVT,
see
Half-value thickness
I
IAEA protocol, 171
In-air
calibration, of plane-parallel chamber, 162
method, 30
Incident spectral energy distribution, 396
Indirect ionizing particles, 2
Initial recombination, 120, 123
In-phantom
air-kerma calibration factor, 103
calibration, correction factors for, 94
method, 30
Internal detector board, 212
Inverse square law
correction, 421
relationship, 26
Ion(s)
chamber(s)
dimensions, 197, 198, 199, 200
spherical, 137
collection
efficiency, 138, 157, 335, 445
potential, 205
time, 197
pair production, energy for, 44
mobility of, 181
recombination, 119, 127
corrections, 133, 135
ionization chamber, 129
loss, 133
Ionization, 5
charge value, mean true, 148
current, 133, 137, 139, 194
-to-dose conversion factors, 85
expression for in gas cavity, 10
maximum, in water phantom, 19
recombination losses, 165
volume, 206
Ionization chamber(s)
calibration, 71, 162
collection efficiency in parallel-plate liquid-, 189
cylindrical, 100
with dielectric liquid, 187
electret, 208
exposure-calibrated, 85
fixed-separation plane-parallel, 118
ion recombination of, 129
leakage current of, 92
liquid dielectric, 181
parallel-plane, 196
plane-parallel, 93
pocket, 423
polarity effect of, 129, 149
portable, 199
readings, 27
technical data for, 196
thick-walled, 340
tissue-equivalent, 423
volume recombination parameter in, 132
Ionization chamber dosimetry, 85–218
build-up cap and build-up region, 110–119
chamber polarity effect, 145–151
charge collection, ion recombination, and
saturation, 119–140
Geleijns’ method, 138–140
two-voltage technique, 138
correction factors, 93–110
cylindrical ionization chambers, 100–101
k
Q
factors, 97–100
Monte Carlo calculated correction, 108–110
other correction factors, 101–108
plane-parallel ionization chambers, 93–97
detector perturbation, 151–155
detector wall effect, 140–145
displacement correction, 155–162
ionization chamber calibration, 162–181
liquid dielectric ionization chambers, 181–196
other ionization chambers, 203–218
portable ionization chambers, 199–203
technical data for some ionization chambers,
196–199
Ionizing radiation
effect of on crystalline materials, 295
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gel containing polycrystalline substituted–diacet-
ylene monomer irradiated with, 316
optical absorption bands induced by, 237
sensitivity of MOSFET to, 374
Irradiation(s)
five-beam, 315
made with gamma-rays, 323
polymerization reactions after, 401
/preheating/reading cycles, 264
run, 338, 340
storage before, 258
J
Jaffe theory of initial recombination, 123
JINR,
see
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), 241,
446
K
Kearsley theory, 75
Kerma, 2
calculation, 425
component ratio, graphite wall to carbon dioxde
gas, 444
-equivalent factor, 455
factors, for LiF TLDs, 447
rate, 2
ratio, 448
Kinetic energy, 1
L
Larmor frequency, 403
Laser
diode, 324f, 325
heating, heating term for, 225
-scanning densitometers, 302
LCD,
see
Liquid Crystal Display
Lead shields, 136, 463
Leakage current, 181, 192
Leake counter, 473
LED,
see
Light-emitting diode
Legendre polynomial, 8
LET,
see
Linear energy transfer
LIC,
see
Liquid-ionization chamber
LiF thermoluminescence dosimeters, 248
Light
-emitting diode (LED), 324
loss, 317
Lineal energy, 437
Linear background, 259
Linear energy transfer (LET), 3, 4–5, 77, 221, 239
ambient dose equivalent, 5
calibration, 241
dependence, of heat defect in water, 346
directional dose equivalent, 5
dose-equivalent quantities, 4–5
high-temperature ratio HTR plotted against, 247
radiation, 332
dose-response curve for low, 9
supralinearity for high, 240
spectra, 8
track-averaged, 333
Linearity index, 240, 245, 246
LINUS,
see
Long Interval NeUtron Survey meter
Liquid
-core waveguides, 301
Crystal Display (LCD), 201
dielectric ionization chambers, 181
-ionization chamber (LIC), 181, 193
scintillation counter (LSC) cocktail, 455
Lithium borate, Burlin general theory for, 278
Lithium fluoride thermoluminescent dosimeter
chips, 249
LKB densitometer, film sensivity with, 320
Long Interval NeUtron Survey meter (LINUS), 472,
475
Louvain-la-Neuve, neutron therapy beam of, 425
LSC cocktail,
see
Liquid scintillation counter
cocktail
M
Macbeth manual densitometer, 315
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 401–402, 406,
412, 414
Magnetic spectrometer, 333
Mailed film dosimetry, feasibility study for, 309
Mammography, photons employed in, 156
Markus chamber, 119, 127, 154, 156
Mass absorption coefficients, 3
Mass attenuation coefficient, 305, 392
Mass collision stopping power ratios, 183
Mass energy absorption coefficient, 10, 38, 76, 228
for air, 101
ratio, 28, 37, 190
ratio curve, 272
Mass stopping power ratio, 349
MC,
see
Monte Carlo
MC-TEPC dosimeter,
see
Multichannel tissue-
equivalent proportional counter dosimeter
Mean absorbed dose, 3
Medical Internal Radiation Dose (MIRD), 82
Megavoltage therapy beam, calibration of, 141
Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) device, 372
Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
(MOSFET), 372
designs, 384
dose enhancement factor for, 377
dosimeters, neutron response of, 375
Monte Carlo model of, 376
radiation dosimeter, 372
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485
sensitivity of to ionizing radiation, 374
terminals of, 373
threshold voltage, 379
Metal plate detectors, radiation discharge curves
for, 399
Microdosimetry
elements of, 77
spectra, shape of, 81
Mini-phantom, 111
MIRD,
see
Medical Internal Radiation Dose
Mixed field dosimetry, 197
Mixed-order (MO) model kinetics, 236
MO model kinetics,
see
Mixed-order model kinetics
Model(s)
extrapolation, 156
Fermi breakup, 467
general order, 268
kinetics, mixed-order, 236
polyenergetic superposition, 35
TL kinetics, 252
validation, Monte Carlo, 375
Moller scattering, 14
Monitor units (MU), 379
Mono-energetic
f
-factors, 218
Monoenergetic radiation, 61
Monomer toxicity, 401
Monte Carlo (MC), 60
algorithm, accuracy of for fast electron dose
calculation, 19
calculated correction, 108
calculated depth-dose distributions, 45
calculation(s), 60
cylindrical scoring geometry for, 62
dose backscatter factor, 49
GS4, 50
MCNP, 434
photon fluence distribution differential, 104
radiation transport, 243
code
MORSE, 60
proton, 67
system, 160, 227
derived average dose ratio, 271
derived quality dependence factor, of diamond
TLDs, 273
dose calculations, 448
electron track kernels, 15
generated particle tracks, 79
model validation, 375
predicted sensitivity, in x-ray beams, 272
simulation(s)
Burlin cavity equation and, 279
collimated electron beams, 43
detection position profiles calculated with, 471
EGS4, 276
performed using MCNP code, 63
MORSE Monte Carlo code, 60
MOS device,
see
Metal-oxide-semiconductor
device
MOSFET,
see
Metal oxide semiconductor field
effect transistor
MRI,
see
Magnetic resonance imaging
MU,
see
Monitor units
Multichannel tissue-equivalent proportional
counter (MC-TEPC) dosimeter, 441
Multi-leaf collimator, 265
N
NACP chamber, 95, 133
National Accelerator Centre, 425
National Physical Laboratory (NPL), 25, 32, 36,
178, 198
calorimeter, 342, 343
linear accelerator, 342
Natural thermoluminescence (TLN), 289
Nearest-neighbor sampling, 308
Near saturation, 133
Net optical density (NOD), 310, 319
Neutron(s)
beam, 424, 468
counter, 469
dose-equivalent measurements, 455
dosimeters
design of, 457
gas-filled, 436
energy, 251, 464
ambient dose-equivalent response as function
of, 473
quality factor as function of, 431
response curve, 475
response of dosimeter to, 464
fluence intensity, 426
fluence-to-kerma coefficients, 437
generator, 449
kerma factor
for carbon, 440
for hydrogen, 428
for nitrogen, 439
kerma ratio, 423
monitors, portable, 466
-photon fields, 346
-proton total cross section, 440
radiotherapy, 428
sensitivity, 287
sensors, cross-sectional view of, 465
therapy beam, Louvain-la-Neuve, 425
thermal, 9
Neutron dosimetry, 7, 423–475
Bonner sphere and other portable neutron
monitors, 466–475
gas-filled neutron dosimeters, 436–446
kerma calculation and measurement, 425–436
solid-state neutron dosimeter, 460–466
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superheated drop neutron dosimeter, 451–460
TLD neutron dosimetry, 446–451
Neutron and heavy particles dosimetry, 7–8
heavy particles, 8
neutron dosimetry, 7–8
NIST-calibrated cylindrical chamber, 164
Nitrogen
atoms, in diamond crystals, 361
gas, 248, 251
NMR,
see
Nuclear magnetic resonance
NOD,
see
Net optical density
Nonelastic nuclear interactions, 69
Normalization constant, 21
NPL,
see
National Physical Laboratory
Nuclear Associates VeriDose, 392
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 349, 401
calibration grade, 187
experiments, 350, 403
measurement temperature, 419
relaxation
measurements, 401
rates, 405, 408
Nuclear power stations, 423
Nuclear track detectors, solid-state, 466
O
OA,
see
Optical absorption
OCT,
see
Optical computer tomography
Octafluorocyclobutane, 453, 456
OD,
see
Optical density
OER,
see
Oxygen enhancement ratio
OF,
see
Output factor
One-dimensional transport theory, 62
Onsager escape distance, 139, 188
Optical absorption (OA), 236
Optical attenuation coefficient, 407
Optical computer tomography (OCT), 414
Optical density (OD), 314, 324
base-plus-fog, 306
change in, 318, 326
distribution, 315
net, 310
radiochromic film, 326
scanning, of polymer gels, 407
temperature dependence of, 317
Ortec Maestro II software, 461
Oscillation, frequency factor of, 225
Output factor (OF), 192, 193
Oxide-silicon interface, positive-ion diffusion
toward, 372
Oxygen enhancement ratio (OER), 424
P
PA,
see
Preamplifier
Paired-chamber method, 443
Parallel-plane ionization chambers, 196
Parallel-plate
chambers, physical characteristics of, 172
free-air chamber, 133
geometry, 392
liquid-ionization chamber, general collection effi-
ciency in, 189
Particle
fluence, 2, 3
flux rate, 2
Passive bubble detector, 458
PDD,
see
Percentage depth dose
PE radiator foil,
see
Polyethylene radiator foil
Pentium PC, 327
Percentage depth dose (PDD), 30, 154
Personal dose equivalent, 429, 430, 432, 433
Perturbation
correction factor, 53, 55, 154
detector, 151
effects
diamond detector, 368
in-scattering, 87
factor(s), 37, 85, 91
fluence, 106
variation of, 90
PETRA, 44
Phantom(s)
anthropomorphic MIRD, 434
behavior of detector irradiated in, 265
chambers designed for measurements in solid, 86
dosimetry, 141
film dosimetry in, 301
film orientations observed for, 307
heterogeneous, 306
infinitely sized, 61
ion-chamber readings in, 168
material, 95, 141, 166
mini-, 111
plastic, 19, 67
PMMA, 94, 174
polystyrene, 94
surface, mean energy at, 27
water, 27, 101
absorbed dose at point in, 173
depth doses measured in homogeneous, 307
ionization maximum in, 19
Photoconductor sensitivity, 398
Photodiode
measurement, 227
response, Hamamatsu, 379, 380
Photomultiplier
signal, 248
tubes (PMT), 262
Photon(s)
absorption, angular anisotropy of, 56
attenuation, 158, 165
beam(s)
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absorbed dose in high-energy, 141
LiF TLF in megavoltage, 227
megavoltage, 271, 280
qualities, relative sensitometric curve for, 309
radiation, TLD response in external, 281
discrimination, low-energy, 263
dosimetry, 28
emission, magnitude of primary, 58
employmentof in mammography, 156
energy(ies), 215
characteristic curves of CEA tlf ILM FOR, 303
dose-response curves for radiochromic film
for, 322
increasing recombination effects with
decreasing, 378
mean, 392
range, 367
response, 264
variation with incident, 74
fluence, 73
distribution differential, Monte Carlo
calculation of, 104
dynamic field, 35
perturbation, correction factors for, 352
scaling theorem, 341
produced by accelerator, 13
radiation field, perturbation of, 100
scatter generation, 61
sensitivity, relative, 367
signals, pulse-shape analysis of, 463
transport code, 58
Phototransferred thermoluminescence (PTTL), 268
Pixel-by-pixel nonuniformity correction matrix,
314
Plane-parallel chamber(s), 86, 125, 164
desirable properties for, 87
in-air calibration of, 162
types, characteristics of, 88–89
Plane-parallel ionization chamber, 65, 93
Plastic phantoms, 19, 67
Plastic Water, 145
Plate separation, 205
PMMA,
see
Polymethylmethacrylate
PMT,
see
Photomultiplier tubes
Pocket ionization chambers, 423
Podgorsak approximation, 252, 254, 250, 255
Point source dose, 6
Polarity
correction, 27
effect(s), 130, 157, 165
chamber, 145
ionization chambers, 129, 149
relation of to average energy, 147
error, 149, 150
Polarizing voltage, 197, 198
Polyenergetic superposition model, 35
Polyethylene (PE) radiator foil, 427
Polyfluoroethylene propylene, 214
Polymer
gel(s)
dosimeters, 401
tomographic optical density scanning of, 407
systems, 6
Polymerization reactions
after irradiation, 401
free-radical, 408
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), 56–57, 68, 116,
157, 361
phantom, 94, 174
radial dose function for, 59
-walled Farmer chamber, 169
Polystyrene
calibration factors, 368
phantom, 94
Polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 328
Portable ionization chambers, 199
Portable neutron monitors, 466
Positron annihilation, 14
Preamplifier (PA), 378
PRESTA algorith, 306
Primary-to-scatter ratio, 306
Propane-based TE gas, 442
Proportional counters, 427
Proprotionality, 229
Protection dosimetry, 221
Proton
beam(s)
current, 344
extended use of, 67
Bragg peak stereotactic radiosurgery, dosimetry
verification of, 312
density, 410
depth-dose distribution, 67
dosimetry, 64, 71
energy, 267
Monte Carlo Code, 67
recoil telescope (PRT), 427
Proximity functions, calculation of, 79
PRT,
see
Proton recoil telescope
Pseudo-steady state, 413
PTRAN code, 68, 67
PTTL,
see
Phototransferred thermoluminescence
PTW/diamond detector, 371
p
-type semiconductor dosimeter, 381
Pulsed beams, 28
Pulse-height analysis, 78
Purified cellulose membrane, dosimetric properties
of, 294
Q
QF,
see
Quality factor
Quality
dependence factor, 231, 271
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factor (QF), 2
Quantity backscatter reduction factor, 48
R
RADFET
output response, 385, 386, 388
radiation response of, 387
systems, calibration curves for, 381
Radiation
continuous, 126, 135
direction, 404
discharge curves, for metal plate detectors, 399
dosimetry, theoretical aspects of, stopping power,
40–44
energy range of, 424
field, description of, 1
-induced conductivity (RIC), 214
interaction, dominant, 75
ionizing
effect of on crystalline materials, 295
gel containing polycrystalline substi-
tuted–diacetylene monomer irradiated with,
316
sensitivity of MOSFET to, 374
LET, 9, 332
monoenergetic, 61
oncology, 301, 304
pulsed, 124, 138
quality, recombination index of, 445
reference, 265
resistance, 367
response, RADFET, 387
therapy, 13, 197
weighting factor, 424
Radiation Assessment Instrument for Space
Applications (RAISA), 458
Radiation dosimetry, theoretical aspects of, 13–82
cavity theory, 72–77
dosimeter perturbation, 52–56
dosimetry for brachytherapy, 56–64
electron backscattering, 46–52
electron dosimetry, 14–28
elements of microdosimetry, 77–82
energy for ion pair production, 44–46
photons dosimetry, 28–40
proton dosimetry, 64–72
Radiochromic film (RCF), 301, 314
dose-response curves for, 322
dosimeters, influence of irradiation temperature
differences on response of, 323
dosimetry, 310
optical density of, 326
response of in polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 328
response of with respect to absorbed dose, 315
system, 314
uniformity of improved, 323
Radioimmunotherapy, 79, 279
Radiolabeled antibodies, 79, 80
Radioluminescence (RL), 285, 289
Radiotherapy beams, 23
RADMON mother chip, 388
RAISA,
see
Radiation Assessment Instrument for
Space Applications
Randall-Wilkins
equation, 234
first-order kinetics peak, 233
Range-straggling distribution, Gaussian approxi-
mation of, 68
Rayleigh scattering, 14
RCF,
see
Radiochromic film
Reading cycles, 256
Read-out unit, schematics of, 397
Real-time personal neutron dosimeter, 463
Recoil energy, 40
Recombination
coefficient of general, 134
correction factor, 127
index of radiation quality (RIQ), 445, 446
Red Perspex dosimeter, effect of absorbed dose on
response of, 291
Reference
beam quality, 91
radiation, 265
Refractive index
for bis monomer solutions, 417
for polymer gels, 418
rem counter, 423, 470
Replacement corrections, 154, 157, 335
Response curves, of TLD, 232
Rexolite, 186
RIC,
see
Radiation-induced conductivity
RIQ,
see
Recombination index of radiation quality
RL,
see
Radioluminescence
Rossi proportional counter, 80
Ross’s calorimeter, 334
RW-1, radial dose function for, 59
S
SA detectors, 257
Saturation level, 257
Scanditronix chambers, 134
Scatter correction factors, 165
Scattering foil beam, 147
SCD,
see
Source Chamber Distance
Scintillation
detectors, 302
powders, 460
SDD,
see
Superheated drop detector
SE,
see
Superheated emulsions
Sensitivity variation with temperature (SVWT), 390
Shield bias, effect of on current collected, 346
Shonka chamber, 136
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Index
489
Silicon
charge carrier concentration in high-purity, 394
detector, 390
diode detector, 66, 364
semiconductor detectors, limitation in using, 382
-water stopping power ratio, 366
Silver halide
crystals, size of, 303
film, 301
Single sphere albedo counter, 472
Single spin-spin relaxation rate, 404
Skin dose measurements, 374
SOBP,
see
Spread-out Bragg peak
Solid-state dosimeters, 361–399
diamond dosimeter, 361–371
MOSFET radiation dosimeter, 372–381
other solid-state dosimeters, 391–399
p
-type semiconductor dosimeter, 381–391
Solid-state neutron dosimeter, 460
Solon and Victoreen chips, 231
Source
Chamber Distance (SCD), 112
-detector geometry, 470
-surface distance (SSD), 28, 171
Spectrophotometer cell, 351
Spencer-Attix
cavity equation, 371
stopping power ratio, 20, 108, 184
theory, 72, 228
water to air stopping-power ratios, 35
Spencer-Fano primary electron spectrum, 10
Spread-out Bragg peak (SOBP), 313
SRS,
see
Stereotactic radiosurgery
SSD,
see
Source-surface distance
Stem correction factors, 110, 111
Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), 191
Stopping number, 41
Stopping power ratio, 100, 41, 85, 182, 335,
339
collision, 365
mass collision, 183
silicon-water, 366
Spencer-Attix, 35, 108
water/air, 42
Storage
after irradiation, 224
before irradiation, 258
time, hypsochromic shift with, 312
Straggling theories, general assumption in, 66
Superheated drop detector (SDD), 423, 451, 452
Superheated emulsions (SE), 453, 461
Supralinearity, 241
corrections, 252
factor, 450
function, 232, 233, 235
Surface dose measurements, 248
SVWT,
see
Sensitivity variation with temperature
Synchrotron radiation, dose response of radiation
detectors to, 378
T
TAC,
see
Time amplitude converter
TE,
see
Tissue-equivalent
TEPC,
see
Tissue-equivalent proportional counter
Terma differential, 35
Tetramethylsilane (TMS), 181, 186, 191, 195
Thermal defect
calculation of, 346
calorimeter, 345
Thermal neutron response (TNR), 451
Thermoluminescence (TL), 285, 286, 295
albedo dosimeters, 423
characteristics, 231
detectors, energy dependence of response of, 275
emission(s), 256
defect structures responsible for, 293
spectra, 270, 287
glow curves, 237, 245, 269, 285
kinetics, 252, 289
light production, 287
phosphors, 288
signal, 231, 239
Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), 221, 272,
302, 371, 451
chip, 277
diamond, 272, 273
dosimeter badge, 263
irradiation of, 230
response dependence, 280
thickness, 229
Thermoluminescent dosimetry, 221–297
CAF:Tm dosimeter, 263–270
electron spin resonance dosimetry, 292–297
LIF:Mg,Cu P dosimeter, 252–263
LIF:Mg,Ti TL dosimeter, 222–252
miscellaneous TLD, 283–292
theoretical aspects and Monte Carlo calculations
of TL dosimetry, 271–283
Thermostimulated luminescence (TSL), 288
Thick-walled (TW) ionization chamber, 340
Thin films, 301
Thomas-Fermi model, 41
Threshold voltage, 383, 389
drift rate of, 372
temperature vs., 373
Time amplitude converter (TAC), 463
Time-of-flight measurements, 427
Tissue attenuation factor, 61
Tissue-equivalent (TE)
counting gas, 442
ionization chamber, 423
plastic, 78
proportional counter (TEPC), 436
Ch-01.Index/frame Page 489 Friday, November 10, 2000 12:05 PM