Schenken Suzanne O’Dea. From Suffrage to the Senate: An Encyclopedia of American Women in Politics (2 Volumes)

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

of the Fourteenth Amendment. The case addressed a Michigan law that

forbade a female to be a bartender unless she was the wife or daughter of

the male owner of a licensed liquor establishment. The Court explained:

“The fact that women may now have achieved the virtues that men have

long claimed as their prerogatives and now indulge in vices that men have

long practiced, does not preclude the states from drawing a sharp line

between the sexes, certainly in such matters as the regulation of the liquor

traffic.” Even though women could be waitresses in bars regardless of their

relationship to the owner, the Court wrote: “Michigan evidently believes

that the oversight assured through ownership of a bar by a barmaid’s hus-

band or father minimizes hazards that may confront a barmaid without

such protecting oversight.”

Following the passage of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the

Court found sex discrimination in employment unconstitutional.

See also Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII; Employment Discrimination; Equal

Employment Opportunity Commission; Fourteenth Amendment

References Goesaert v. Cleary, 335 U.S. 464 (1948).

Goldman, Emma (1869–1940)

Anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman argued that sexual oppression

was as important as class oppression in causing human suffering. Born in

Kovno, Lithuania, Goldman emigrated to the United States in 1885 to

avoid an arranged marriage. After the Chicago Haymarket Square riot in

1886 and the subsequent execution of the Haymarket anarchists, she de-

clared herself an anarchist.

In 1893, Goldman told unemployed workers: “Demonstrate before

the places of the rich, demand work. If they do not give you work, demand

bread. If they deny you both, take bread. It is your sacred right.” Arrested

for inciting people to riot, she served one year in prison. She was again ar-

rested in 1901, following the arrest of anarchist Leon Czolgosz for shoot-

ing President William McKinley. Authorities believed that she had been

involved but were unable to find evidence linking her to the crime, and

she was released. Goldman began publishing a monthly anarchist maga-

zine, Mother Earth, in 1906 and began a national lecture tour to publicize

and support it. She continued publishing Mother Earth until 1917, when

another prison sentence forced her to abandon the magazine.

A certified midwife and nurse, Goldman worked among poor immi-

grant women. Repeated pregnancies damaged their health and con-

tributed to a high infant mortality rate. The plight of women bearing un-

wanted children they could not afford to feed or house and women’s

attempts to abort their pregnancies convinced Goldman that women

Goldman, Emma 295

needed birth control information. Contraceptive information, however,

was classified as obscene under the Comstock law passed in 1873. In 1915,

Goldman lectured on contraception and offered pamphlets that gave spe-

cific instructions on contraceptive methods. She was arrested at a lecture

in New York for selling or advertising contraceptives, even though her lec-

ture dealt with the need to make the materials available and she was not

describing contraceptive methods. She used her trial to attract publicity

for birth control and the necessity of its availability. She was jailed for two

weeks in 1916.

Opposed to U.S. involvement in World War I, Goldman believed that

war enslaved workers while enriching masters. She helped men who re-

fused to register for the military, leading to her arrest in 1917 for conspir-

ing against the draft. As she had in her birth control trial, Goldman used

the trial to publicize her anarchist views and her opposition to the Selec-

tive Service. She was sentenced to two years in prison.

Deported to Russia in 1919, Goldman descried the increasing cen-

tralization, bureaucratization, and militarization of the country and

moved to England in 1921. She exposed the excesses of the revolution in

296 Goldman, Emma

Famous anarchist

Emma Goldman

spoke at Union

Square in New York

City, 1916 (UPI/

Corbis-Bettmann)

articles for the New York World and wrote My Disillusionment in Russia

(1923); My Further Disillusionment in Russia (1924); and her autobiogra-

phy, Living My Life (1931).

See also Dennett, Mary Coffin Ware; Sanger, Margaret Louise Higgins

References Solomon, Emma Goldman (1987); Spender, Feminist Theorists

(1983).

Governors, Women

The first woman governor was Democrat Nellie Tayloe Ross of

Wyoming. Ross, who followed her husband in office after his death, won

a special election and served from 1925 to 1927. Democrat Miriam Fer-

guson of Texas became governor fifteen days after Ross, serving from

1925 to 1927 and from 1933 to 1935. More than thirty years would pass

before Democrat Lurleen Wallace of Alabama would serve as governor

from 1967 to 1968.

The first woman governor whose husband had not held the office be-

fore her was Democrat Ella Grasso of Connecticut. Grasso took office in

1975 and served until late 1980, when she resigned for health reasons.

Three other Democratic women governors were Dixie Lee Ray of Wash-

ington (1977–1981), Martha Layne Collins of Kentucky (1984–1988), and

Madeleine Kunin of Vermont (1985–1991). Kay Orr of Nebraska

(1987–1991) was the first Republican woman to serve as governor and the

first female gubernatorial candidate to run against another female candi-

date. Democrat Rose Mofford of Arizona became governor following the

impeachment and conviction of the incumbent governor and served from

1988 to 1991. The first woman to defeat an incumbent governor, Demo-

crat Joan Finney of Kansas, served from 1991 to 1995. Both Ann Richards

(D-TX) and Barbara Roberts (D-OR) served from 1991 to 1995. Republi-

can Christine Todd Whitman of New Jersey was elected in 1993, and

Democrat Jeanne Shaheen of New Hampshire began serving in 1997. Af-

ter another incumbent’s removal from office in Arizona (for fraud), Re-

publican Jane Dee Hull became governor in 1997.

See also Collins, Martha Layne Hall; Ferguson, Miriam Amanda Wallace;

Finney, Joan; Grasso, Ella Rosa Giovanna Oliva Tambussi; Hull, Jane Dee

Bowersock; Kunin, Madeleine May; Mofford, Rose Perica; Orr, Kay Avonne

Stark; Ray, Dixy Lee; Richards, Ann Willis; Roberts, Barbara Hughey; Ross,

Nellie Tayloe; Roy, Vesta M.; Shaheen, Jeanne; Wallace, Lurleen Burns; Whit-

man, Christine Todd

References Center for the American Woman and Politics, Eagleton Institute of

Politics, Rutgers University.

Governors, Women 297

Granahan, Kathryn Elizabeth O’Hay (1894–1979)

Democrat Kathryn Granahan of Pennsylvania served in the U.S. House of

Representatives from 6 November 1956 to 3 January 1963. Following the

death of her husband, Congressman William Granahan, Kathryn Grana-

han succeeded him as Democratic leader of Philadelphia’s Fifty-second

Ward and became the party’s nominee to complete his term. She won two

elections on the same day, one to fill the vacancy and the other to a full

term. While in Congress, Granahan worked to eliminate obscenity in liter-

ature and in movies, arguing that it contributed to juvenile delinquency

and had ill effects on everyone. She was chief sponsor of bills that required

mandatory jail sentences for operating a pornographic mail order business

and that strengthened the Post Office’s power to impound mail addressed

to people suspected of mailing pornographic materials. She also asked the

U.S. Supreme Court to issue clear guidelines defining pornography.

When Pennsylvania lost a House seat following the 1960 census,

Democratic Party leaders decided to sacrifice Granahan’s seat, and she re-

tired. Appointed treasurer of the United States by President John F.

Kennedy, she served from 1963 to 1966.

Born in Easton, Pennsylvania, Kathryn Granahan attended Mount

St. Joseph Collegiate Institute. She was supervisor of public assistance in

the Pennsylvania state auditor general’s office from 1940 to 1943.

See also Abortion; Congress, Women in

References Congressional Quarterly, Politics in America 1998 (1997);

www.pbs.org/newshour/.

Grasso, Ella Rosa Giovanna Oliva Tambussi (1919–1981)

Democrat Ella Grasso of Connecticut served in the U.S. House of Repre-

sentatives from 21 January 1971 to 3 January 1975 and was governor of

Connecticut from 1975 to 1980. She was the first woman to become gov-

ernor whose husband did not precede her in office.

Grasso’s political involvement began when she joined the League of

Women Voters (LWV) in 1943. After years of working for other candi-

dates, she ran for the Connecticut House of Representatives, where she

served from 1953 to 1957. While in the House, Grasso led a reorganization

of state government that eliminated counties, a concept she had worked

on as a member of the LWV. After leaving the House, in the late 1950s she

was a primary leader in the development of a new state constitution,

Grasso, Ella Rosa Giovanna Oliva Tambussi 299

Representative Kay

Granger (R-TX),

with Speaker of the

House Dennis

Hastert (R-IL), at a

news conference in

Fort Worth, Texas,

on gun control

legislation, 1999

(Associated Press AP)

which went into effect in 1960. Connecticut secretary of state from 1959

to 1971, Grasso became one of the state’s best-known politicians and was

increasingly visible in the Democratic Party.

As a member of Congress, Grasso worked for the Emergency Em-

ployment Act of 1971, the Higher Education Act of 1972, appropriations

to fight sickle-cell anemia and Cooley’s anemia, benefits for veterans, and

assistance for the elderly. She supported an increase in the minimum wage

and played a major role in drafting the Comprehensive Employment and

Training Act. She opposed reproductive rights.

During her 1974 campaign for governor, she commissioned an inves-

tigation that revealed significant overcharges by Connecticut’s three major

utilities and vowed to reform them. Keeping her pledge once in office, she

proposed new financing methods for the utilities’ capital improvements,

management audit teams, and the creation of an ombudsman’s office.

When Grasso took office, she discovered that Connecticut had significant

financial problems. She reduced state spending and avoided implementing

a state income tax. Voters showed their appreciation by reelecting her in

1978. She resigned the governorship on 31 December 1980 because she

had ovarian cancer that had spread to other organs.

Born in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, Grasso received her bachelor’s

degree in economics and sociology in 1941 and her master’s degree in

1942, both from Mount Holyoke College.

See also Abortion; Congress, Women in; Governors, Women; State Legislatures,

Women in

References Engelbarts, Women in the United States Congress, 1917–1972 (1974);

H. W. Wilson, Current Biography Yearbook, 1975 (1975); New York Times, 6

February 1981.

Graves, Dixie Bibb (1882–1965)

Democrat Dixie Graves of Alabama served in the U.S. Senate from 20 Au-

gust 1937 to 10 January 1938. When incumbent U.S. senator Hugo Black

was appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court, Alabama governor Bibb Graves

appointed his wife, Dixie Graves, to fill the vacancy until an election could

be held. During her brief tenure, Senator Graves made a speech to the

Senate tearfully pleading with her colleagues to defeat the antilynching bill

before them. She argued that the South’s law enforcement system could

decrease lynching without federal involvement. The extent of her influ-

ence on the Senate is unknown, but the speech made her so popular in Al-

abama that a write-in campaign to make her a candidate for the balance

of the term began. She declined, however, and did not run.

Born on a plantation near Montgomery, Alabama, Graves’s formal

education was limited. As a member of the State Literacy Commission

300 Graves, Dixie Bibb

and as chair of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs’ Commission on

Literacy, she worked to end illiteracy. Active in the Alabama Equal Suf-

frage Association, she served on the state’s ratification committee, but Al-

abama failed to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment. She was president of

the Alabama Division of the United Daughters of the Confederacy from

1915 to 1917 and vice president of the Alabama Federation of Women’s

Clubs in 1929.

See also Antilynching Movement; Congress, Women in; General Federation of

Women’s Clubs; Nineteenth Amendment; Suffrage

References Boxer, Strangers in the Senate: Politics and the New Revolution

of Women in America (1994); Office of the Historian, U.S. House of

Representatives, Women in Congress, 1917–1990 (1991); Yelverton, They Also

Served: Twenty-Five Remarkable Alabama Women (1993).

Green, Edith Louise Starrett (1910–1987)

Democrat Edith Green of Oregon served in the U.S. House of Represen-

tatives from 3 January 1955 to 31 December 1975. An unsuccessful candi-

date for secretary of state for Oregon in 1952, Green emphasized educa-

tion in her successful campaign for Congress in 1954. In her first term, she

introduced and passed a bill for a $7.5-million appropriation for library

services in rural areas. She played a key role in the passage of the National

Defense Education Act in 1958, authored the Higher Education Facilities

Act of 1965, and provided leadership in establishing the first federal pro-

gram for undergraduate scholarships. Her amendments to the 1965 Voca-

tional Rehabilitation Act expanded its scope to include urban youth in vo-

cational training.

Appointed to the President’s Commission on the Status of Women

and chair of its Civil and Political Rights Committee in the early 1960s,

Green authored and introduced the successful Equal Pay Act of 1963, a

measure that had been introduced in various forms since the 1940s and

that the commission endorsed. The next year, she was the only woman in

the House of Representatives who voted against including sex in Title VII

of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, saying that it was neither the time nor the

place for addressing discrimination on the basis of sex in employment.

A member of the Women’s Equity Action League’s (WEAL) advisory

board, Green was familiar with the organization’s initiatives to end sex

discrimination in education. In 1970, Green held the first congressional

hearings on the topic and hired Bernice Sandler of WEAL to write a re-

port on them. Green distributed thousands of copies of the report, giv-

ing advocates for educational equity a valuable tool as they worked with

other activists and members of Congress. In 1971, several members of

Congress introduced a variety of plans to prohibit sex discrimination in

Green, Edith Louise Starrett 301

education, but it took several months to negotiate a plan for accomplish-

ing the goal.

Green declined to run for reelection in 1974. She was a professor of

government at Warner Pacific College and in 1979 was appointed to the

Oregon Board of Higher Education.

Born in Trent, South Dakota, Edith Green attended Willamette Uni-

versity from 1927 to 1929. She began teaching in 1930 and attended col-

lege when she could afford it, receiving her bachelor of science degree

from the University of Oregon in 1939. She left teaching in 1941 and be-

came a radio announcer and a freelance scriptwriter.

See also Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII; Congress, Women in; Education

Amendments of 1972, Title IX; Equal Pay Act of 1963; President’s Commission

on the Status of Women; Women’s Equity Action League

References Kaptur, Women of Congress: A Twentieth Century Odyssey (1996);

Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives, Women in Congress,

1917–1990 (1991).

Green Party USA

The Green Party USA was begun as the Green Committees of Corre-

spondence in 1984 by activists familiar with Green parties in Europe. Or-

ganized in forty-six states, the Green Party USA supports ten key values:

ecological wisdom, social justice, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, de-

centralization, community-based economics, feminism, respect for di-

versity, personal and global responsibility, and future focus/sustainabil-

ity. Members are guided by the concept of thinking globally and acting

locally.

The Green Party USA entered its first presidential campaign in 1996,

when Ralph Nader was the party’s candidate for president and Winona

LaDuke was its vice presidential candidate. The slate attracted more than

700,000 votes, approximately 1 percent of the votes nationwide.