Rudnick L. Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications (Присадки, добавки к смазкам)
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584 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
74. Spikes, H., “The History and Mechanisms of ZDDP,” Trib. Lett., 17(3), 469–489, 2004.
75. Chakravarty, N. K., “The In uence of Lead, Iron, Tin, and Copper on the Oxidation of Lubricating Oils.
Part II. On the Metal Catalysed Oxidation of Oils,” J. Inst. Petrol., 49(479), 353–358, 1963.
76. Bondi, A., Physical Chemistry of Lubricating Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, p. 289,
1951.
77. Karis, T. E., B. Marchon, M. D. Carter, P. R Fitzpatrick, and J. P. Oberhauser, “Humidity Effects in
Magnetic Recording,” IEEE Trans. Magn., 41(2), 593–598, 2005.
78. Karis, T. E., W. T. Kim, and M. S. Jhon, “Spreading and Dewetting in Nanoscale Lubrication,” Trib.
Lett., 17(4), 1003–1017, 2004.
79. Karis, T. E., and M. A. Tawakkul, “Water Adsorption and Friction on Thin Film Magnetic Recording
Disks,” Trib. Trans., 46(3), 469–478, 2003.
80. Karis T. E., and X.-C. Guo, “Molecular Adhesion Model for the Bridged State of a Magnetic Recording
Slider,” IEEE Trans. Magn., 43(6), 2232–2234, 2007.
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23
Additives for Grease
Applications
Robert Silverstein and Leslie R. Rudnick
CONTENTS
23.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 585
23.2 Worldwide Use of Greases ..................................................................................................587
23.3 Production of Greases .........................................................................................................587
23.4 Grease Composition and Properties ....................................................................................588
23.4.1 Composition ........................................................................................................... 588
23.4.2 Properties ............................................................................................................... 589
23.4.3 Consistency ............................................................................................................ 589
23.4.4 Stability .................................................................................................................. 589
23.4.4.1 Dropping Point ....................................................................................... 589
23.4.5 Extreme Pressure/Antiwear ...................................................................................590
23.4.5.1 Four-Ball Wear .......................................................................................590
23.4.5.2 Four-Ball Extreme Pressure ...................................................................590
23.4.6 Pumpability ............................................................................................................ 591
23.4.7 Corrosion................................................................................................................591
23.4.8 Water Tolerance ..................................................................................................... 591
23.4.9 Bench Performance Tests ....................................................................................... 591
23.5 Grease Thickeners ............................................................................................................... 591
23.6 Oxidation Inhibitors ............................................................................................................594
23.7 Friction and Wear ................................................................................................................594
23.8 Extreme-Pressure and Antiwear Agents .............................................................................596
23.8.1 Solid Additives .......................................................................................................597
23.9 Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors .............................................................................................597
23.9.1 Metal Deactivators ................................................................................................. 598
23.9.2 Tackiness Additives ............................................................................................... 598
23.10 Environmentally Friendly Grease ....................................................................................... 598
23.11 Summary .............................................................................................................................599
23.12 Effects of Individual Additives and Grease Soaps ..............................................................600
23.12.1 Food-Grade Greases ..............................................................................................602
23.12.2 Synergistic Additive Effects ..................................................................................602
Acknowledgment ...........................................................................................................................605
References ......................................................................................................................................605
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Greases are one of the oldest forms of lubricating materials, and in fact, the rst greases can be con-
sidered environmentally-friendly and biodegradable by our modern conventions. Ancient Egyptians
about 1400 BC made crude greases to lubricate the wheels of their chariots. These early greases
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586 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
consisted of both mutton- and beef fat, which were sometimes mixed with lime. In fact, the word
“grease” is derived from crass us, the Latin word for fat. As time progressed, there was only minimal
improvement in grease performance until about the eighteenth century. During the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries and the Industrial Revolution, society created a greater variety of new machines.
This modern technology that developed during and after the Industrial Revolution required lubri-
cants to handle greater loads and to operate under more severe conditions. New grease technology
was needed to improve the performance of equipment and the lifetime of machine components.
Grease is a semisolid or solid lubricant composed of a thickening agent dispersed in a liquid
lubricant or in a combination of lubricants. The principal advantage of choosing grease over con-
ventional lubricating oil in certain applications is the grease’s ability to remain in contact with the
desired moving surfaces. Greases will generally not leak away from the point of application. Thick-
eners in the grease are designed to reduce any migration caused by gravity, pressure, or centrifugal
action. Grease is best thought of as thickened oil.
There are at least three instances where grease is chosen over oil as a lubricant. In applications
Where leakage of oil would occur
Where the natural sealing action of grease is needed
When greater lm thickness is necessary
The liquid lubricant or base oil in grease usually accounts for 70–95% of the grease. The base oil may
be mineral oil, synthetic oil, or natural oil such as a vegetable oil. Oils from animal sources are gener-
ally not used today. Generally, thickening agents constitute between 5 and 25% of the grease composi-
tion. The most common thickeners in use today are metallic soaps, particularly lithium soaps, which
account for >60% of the grease market. Silica, expanded graphite [1], or clays (bentonite or hectorite)
are sometimes used as thickeners. Clay thickeners represent ∼5 to 10% of the grease market.
Additives, required to improve certain properties of the grease such as oxidative stability, wear
protection, and corrosion inhibition are used in 0.5–10% of the grease depending on the grease type
and application. When grease is to be used under more severe conditions, it generally contains a
more enhanced additive package. These additives are often the same additives used in liquid lubri-
cants. Exceptions are solid additives such as graphite and molybdenum disul de, which are typi-
cally used as antifriction and extreme-pressure (EP) additives.
Further research will continue to provide newer and more effective components that will serve
as thickeners and additives in the eld of lubrications. These future materials are expected to pro-
vide greases and liquid lubricants with properties and performance capabilities exceeding those
possible today.
In addition to the resistance to ow that maintains grease at the point of application, the primary
performance features are to reduce friction and wear. Some of the main factors that affect grease
properties and performance are
Type and amount of thickener
Consistency or hardness
Dropping point
Antioxidant additives
EP additives
Pumpability
Volatility
Environmental considerations as toxicity and biodegradability
Soaps, used as thickeners, can be considered additive in greases, although they generally com-
prise a large percentage of the grease composition. Thickeners are, in fact, what make grease
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Additives for Grease Applications 587
and what differentiate grease from conventional lubricating uid. This chapter does not consider
soaps, because they have been previously described by Klamann [2] and Boner [3]. Functionalized
soaps have also been used to impart EP and antiwear (AW) performance to grease [2].
The purpose of this chapter is to serve as a review of some of the important additives used in
greases and present various additive testing results that demonstrate their performance bene ts.
Because nal grease formulations are a function of particular performance needs, application data
described herein are focused on base oil/thickener/additive affects and not on fully formulated
greases, many of which are proprietary.
23.2 WORLDWIDE USE OF GREASES
On a global basis, the regions that consume the largest percentage of the world’s grease are North
America (545 MM lb), Peoples Republic of China (510 MM lb), and Europe (414 MM lb). India and
the Indian subcontinent (182 MM lb), Japan (184 MM lb), Paci c and Southeast Asia (113 MM lb),
Caribbean, Central and South America (99 MM), and Africa and the Middle East (71 MM) repre-
sent the remaining bulk of the global grease production [4]. Each of the world’s different regions
requires different grease products.
The National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) Grease Production Survey Report for the
year 2006 reports a grand total of £2.1 billion of lubricating grease manufactured worldwide. Of
this, conventional lithium soap and lithium complex were ∼59 and 15% of the total, respectively. In
the United States and Canada, conventional lithium and lithium complex greases represent 32 and
36%, respectively, of the £545 million of grease produced in 2006 [4].
Highly re ned, chemically modi ed mineral oils (CMMO) or synthetic base oils are used in
high-performance complex soap greases, in more demanding applications that cannot be met with
commodity greases [5]. Industrial applications compare the majority of grease used worldwide; the
largest application areas are found in railroad lubrication, steel production, mining, and general
manufacturing. Automotive applications include trucks, buses, agricultural and off-road construc-
tion equipment, and passenger cars [5].
23.3 PRODUCTION OF GREASES
Soap-thickened greases are manufactured using three basic sequential process steps. First, the soap
is formed by the saponi cation of various fats. Then the soap is dehydrated and further optimized
in properties. Finally, milling disperses the soap, base uid, and additives to provide a consistent
dispersion of all components. Milling is a process of shearing the grease to disperse all components.
Brown et al. [6] have demonstrated how the process of shearing during milling orients the soap
bers. Dispersion and orientation can harden greases by 100 penetration units [7].
Grease is produced using a kettle process, a contactor process, or a continuous process. These
processes differ in terms of the rate of grease production, the quantity of grease to be produced, and
the initial investment in equipment. The kettle and contactor processes are both batch processes.
The contactor process utilizes pressure to reduce reaction time.
When grease is prepared using a batch process, the base oil is heated together with the additives
and thickening agents. If saponi cation of the fat is required to form soap, the reaction mixture is
brought to a higher temperature to complete the reaction and fully disperse all components. A typi-
cal batch kettle reaction will take 8–24 h and can range in scale from 2 to 50,000 lb. They are typi-
cally cylindrical in shape with a height-to-diameter ratio of 1–1.5. They can have dished or conical
bottoms and at or dished tops. Because the principal objective in making grease is the dispersion
of components, kettles may have either one set of rotating paddles or an arrangement of stationary
and rotating paddles so as to more ef ciently mix the components. Scrapers are sometimes used to
remove material adhering to the kettle walls.
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588 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
The advantages of the contactor process are reduced heating and reaction time. For example, a
typical 20,000 lb batch of lithium grease may take 20 h in a kettle process, but only 5–7 h in a con-
tactor process [8,9]. In the contactor process, fatty acids or glycerides such as hydrogenated castor
oil, tallow, vegetable oil, and lithium hydroxide are added at the top. Base uid is added and water
may also be added. The contactor is pressurized, which accelerates the process of saponi cation.
Other process steps include cooling after reaction, adding additional nishing oil, and pumping the
grease to a nishing kettle.
There are three main sections in a continuous grease reactor: the soap reactor section, a dehy-
dration section, and a nishing section. Saponi cation occurs in the reactor section, where the
fatty component, alkali, and base uids are added. The grease components are transferred to the
dehydration section, which operates under vacuum to remove volatiles. The product at this stage is
a dehydrated soap base. The product of the dehydration section is moved to the nishing section,
where additional base uid and additives are combined and dispersed [10]. A comparison of the
continuous and kettle processes is summarized in Table 23.1 [8].
Many chemical and manufacturing factors can affect the properties and performance of greases.
For example, several factors that affect the manufacture of lithium complex greases include the base
uid, fatty acid concentration, temperature, moisture, and additive chemistry [11]. Several features
of the various manufacturing processes need to be considered in preparing greases. These include
the yield of the grease product, any energy requirements to prepare the grease, production time, and
capital investment along with associated maintenance costs.
For applications in extreme environments, such as aerospace and military, specialized lubricat-
ing greases are necessary. These greases must be able to perform reliably under conditions that most
other greases never experience. These materials must have excellent thermal stability, low volatility,
and be able to function under very-low and very-high-temperature regimes. The base uid and all
additive components must meet these criteria. For example, high-performance greases have been
made that incorporate multiply alkylated cyclopentanes (MACs) as the base uid [12]. Other special-
ized base uids have been studied, including those containing uorine and other heteroatoms.
23.4 GREASE COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
23.4.1 C
OMPOSITION
Base uids used in conventional grease are of three types: mineral (petroleum-derived), synthetic
(synthesized from discrete chemical components), and natural (plant- and animal-derived). Mineral
oils can be paraf nic or naphthenic. Synthetic base uids commonly used include polyalphaole ns
(PAOs), esters, polyglycols, and silicones. Natural oils can be derived from soybean, rapeseed, and
other plant oils and high oleic acid versions of these oils.
TABLE 23.1
Comparison of Continuous and Kettle Grease Processing
Continuous Process Kettle Process
Investment cost factor 1.0 1.2
Manufacturing cost factor 1.0 4.1
Heat load (Btu/h) 1,500,000 3,000,000
Cooling water (gal/main) 75 200
Electrical use (kW/h) 120 380
Note: Values are based on a £10 million/year output of lithium, calcium, and
sodium greases.
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Additives for Grease Applications 589
Base uid viscosity, in general, directly affects the viscosity characteristics of the resultant
grease. Base uids used in grease formulation generally range from 150 to 600 N oils and may also
include bright stock. High-viscosity base uids are typically used for high-temperature, heavy-duty
applications. Alternatively, high-speed applications generally require low-viscosity oils. Lubricat-
ing greases are also classi ed according to thickener type [13].
There are many different types of grease thickeners; however, a few major types are gener-
ally employed throughout the industry, depending on the application. Alkali components include
lithium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and aluminum hydroxide. These alkalis
are reacted with materials from animal, marine, and vegetable sources. Nonsoap thickeners can
also be used. These include silica, clays, urea, polyurea, and Te on
®
.
Grease stability, oxidation resistance, effects of water, maximum operating temperature, and
other properties have been summarized by Wills [13].
23.4.2 PROPERTIES
Grease is generally classi ed and evaluated for properties and performance using tests in the fol-
lowing categories:
Consistency
Stability
EP/AW
Pumpability
Corrosion
Water tolerance
Bench performance tests
23.4.3 CONSISTENCY
One of the most important properties of grease is its consistency. Just as lubricating oils are avail-
able in different viscosity grades, greases are speci ed in terms of their consistency, as measured by
their American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) worked penetration. Worked penetration
means that the grease is worked for 60 strokes in a standard manner before measurement. Penetration
is measured by distance, in tenths of millimeters, that a standard cone will penetrate a grease sample
when a standard force is applied. The standard method of measurement is Standard Test Methods
for Cone Penetration of Lubricating Grease ASTM D 217 [7]. However, a special procedure, ASTM
D 1403, has been designed to utilize one-quarter and one-half scale cones for smaller samples [14].
Equations have been developed to convert the results to compare ASTM D 217 results.
In these tests, which are performed at a constant temperature of 25°C (77°F), a harder grease
will exhibit a lower penetration number than a softer grease. The NLGI classi cation system (see
Table 23.2) ranks grease hardness based on this test.
Other tests include apparent viscosity (ASTM D 1092) and evaporative loss (ASTM D 972 and
D 2595).
23.4.4 STABILITY
23.4.4.1 Dropping Point
The hardness of grease is a function of temperature. Greases act as thickened lubricants only to a
point, and then at some temperature, they become uid. A standard measure of the resistance of a
grease to ow as temperature is increased is the dropping point (ASTM D 2265) [15]. In essence,
the dropping point is the measure of the heat resistance of the grease. In the dropping point test,
a grease sample is packed into a standard test cup with a small opening. The sample is heated by
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590 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
introducing the sample into a preheated aluminum block. The sample temperature added with
one-third of the difference between that temperature and the block temperature when the rst
drop of uid leaves the cup is de ned as the dropping point. Guidelines for the maximum usable
service temperature and ranges for dropping points of greases made with various thickeners are
summarized in Table 23.3 [16,17]. The self-diffusion of oil in lubricating greases has been studied
using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy at temperatures between 23 and 90°C. Greases
based on naphthenic mineral oils and PAO synthetic oils were measured. It was shown in this
temperature range (40–90°C) that, using the same base uid, the concentration of the thickener
affected diffusion [18].
Other measures of high-temperature stability include high-temperature bleed (ASTM D 1742),
trident probe (ASTM D 3232), cone bleed (FTM 791B), evaporation (ASTM D 972 and D 2595),
rolling stability (ASTM D 1831), oxidative stability (ASTM D 942), and a high-bearing test (ASTM
D 3336).
23.4.5 EXTREME PRESSURE/ANTIWEAR
23.4.5.1 Four-Ball Wear
ASTM D 2266 describes a test method using three hard steel balls in locked position and coated
with lubricating grease. A fourth ball is rotated against the three stationary balls, producing a wear
scar on each of the three balls, which is reported as the average scar diameter. This test is run at
light loads; thus, seizure or welding does not occur [19].
23.4.5.2 Four-Ball Extreme Pressure
ASTM D 2296 describes a test method similar to ASTM D 2266 except that the loads are much
higher. At a certain load, the four balls will weld together; this is referred to as the weld load.
The weld load can be used to assess whether lubricating grease has a low, medium, or high level
of load-carrying ability. The ASTM de nes the load wear index (or the load-carrying property of
the lubricant) as an index of the ability of a lubricant to prevent wear at applied loads. Under the
test conditions, speci c loadings in Newtons (kilogram force) having intervals of ∼0.1 logarith-
mic units are applied to the three stationary balls for 10 runs before welding. The load wear index
is the average of the corrected loads determined or of the 10 applied loads immediately preceding
the weld point [20].
TABLE 23.2
NLGI Classifi cation System for
Penetration of Greases
NLG Grade Worked Penetration
000 445–475
00 400–430
0 355–385
1 310–340
2 265–295
3 220–250
4 175–205
5 130–160
6 85–115
TABLE 23.3
General Temperature Properties of Various Thickened
Greases
Thickener
Dropping
Point (°F)
Maximum Usable Service
Temperature (°F)
Aluminum soap 230 175
Calcium soap 270–290 250
Sodium soap 340–350 250
Lithium soap 390 275
Calcium complex >500 350
Lithium complex >500 350
Aluminum complex >500 325
Polyurea (nonsoap) >450 350
Organoclay (nonsoap) >500 350
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Additives for Grease Applications 591
Fretting wear is measured using ASTM D 3704, and load-carrying capacity can be evaluated
using Timken O. K. load (ASTM D 2509).
23.4.6 PUMPABILITY
Pumpability can be evaluated using a United States Steel (USS) low-temperature mobility test. It is
largely a function of thickener type and concentration and is not signi cantly affected by additives.
23.4.7 CORROSION
Three common tests for corrosion are a copper corrosion test (ASTM D 130) modi ed for grease, a
bearing rust test (ASTM D 1743), and the Emcor rust test.
23.4.8 WATER TOLERANCE
Water washout is measured using ATSM D 1264. Water spray-off is measured using ASTM D 4049.
The wet roll stability of grease is evaluated using a modi ed ASTM D 1831 test.
23.4.9 BENCH PERFORMANCE TESTS
Several bench performance tests are used in the grease industry to evaluate greases before eld
evaluation. Some of these include a high-temperature wheel bearing test (ASTM D 3527), an
SKF R2F test that simulates paper mill applications, the FE-8 test, CEM electric motor test, and
a General Electric (GE) electric motor test. Low-temperature torque is evaluated using ASTM D
1478 and ASTM D 4693 at a temperature of –54°C.
23.5 GREASE THICKENERS
Most grease is made from metal-salt soaps that serve as the thickeners for the base uid. Metal-salt
soap thickeners are prepared from alkali base and a fat or fatty acids. The fatty materials may be
derived from animal, marine, or vegetable fatty acids or fats. Fatty acids from these sources are
generally even-numbered, straight-chain carboxylic acids containing zero or one double bond. A
common fat used for making grease is hydrogenated castor oil, which yields lithium 12-hydroxy
stearate upon saponi cation. Lithium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide, and
sodium hydroxide are frequently used as the alkali materials. Sample reactions for the formation of
some of these soaps are shown in Figure 23.1 [2].
In modern greases, simple soaps and complex soaps are used. A simple soap is prepared from
one fatty acid and one metal hydroxide. NLGI de nes complex grease as soap wherein the soap
crystal or ber is formed by cocrystallization of two or more compounds: the normal soap and the
complexing agent [21]. The normal soap is the metallic salt of a long-chain fatty acid similar to a
regular soap thickener, for example, calcium stearate and lithium 12-hydroxy stearate. The com-
plexing agent can be the metallic salt of a short-chain organic acid, for example, acetic acid.
In summary, grease thickeners are generally one of the following types:
Aluminum
Aluminum complex
Calcium
Calcium complex
Lithium
Lithium complex
Polyurea
Clay
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592 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
The properties of complex soap greases depend on the following [22]:
Metal type (lithium, calcium, etc.)
Normal soap type (metallic stearate, metallic 12-hydroxystearate, etc.)
Complexing agent type (metallic acetate, benzoate, carbonate, chloride, etc.)
Normal soap to complexing agent ratio
Manufacturing conditions
Complex greases can be used over a greater temperature range because they have higher dropping
points than normal greases.
The structure of grease thickeners directly affects the properties and performance characteristics
of fully formulated grease. Thickeners range in structure from linear soaplike structures to more
complex circular structures. Physically, they may be needles, platelets, or spherical and can vary sig-
ni cantly in dimension. Soaps form microscopic bers, which form a matrix to hold the base uid.
Fibrous sodium soap structures can be 1 × 100 μm, whereas short- bered lithium soap might be on
the order of 0.2 × 2 μm. Aluminum soaps might have a diameter of only 0.1 μm [23]. Boner [24] has
reported that the rheological properties of lithium-based grease depend on the different ber dimen-
sions of the soap molecules. Fiber structure and the surface area to volume ratio of the bers tend to
vary with different soaps. It has been reported that a thin strip is the most effective shape for a thick-
ener molecule. With increase in the surface area to volume ratio of the thickener molecules, the grease
structure is strengthened as indicated by lower penetration [25]. Wilson [26] has reported that lithium
soap bers are long, at strips. In general, sodium soap bers range in size from 1.5 to 100 μm, and
lithium soap bers from 2 to 25 μm. Aluminum soap bers are essentially spherical on the order of 0.1
μm. Calcium soap bers are short, generally ~1 μm long. Organophilic bentonite is ~0.1 × 0.5 μm.
In general, it is safe to conclude that greases made with different grease thickeners should not be
mixed in the same application. This could result in poorer performance of the mixed greases rela-
tive to that expected from either individual grease. Incompatibility and poorer performance could
also result in equipment malfunction. For example, it is generally cautioned that lithium and sodium
greases are incompatible. There are always two sides to every story, and Meade, in an extensive
study, tested more than 1200 grease combinations and found 75% of them to be compatible [27].
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FIGURE 23.1 Chemical reactions for the preparation of grease thickeners.
OH
OH
12-hydroxystearic acid
12-hydroxystearic acid
O
OH
OLi
O
OH
OH
O
O
OH
Stearic acid
O
O
OH
O Ca + H
2
O
+ H
2
O
Al + H
2
O
O
Calcium soap
Aluminum soap
Aluminum tristearate
Lithium 12-hydroxystearate
LiOH+
Ca(OH)
2
+
Al(OH)
3
+
Lithium soap
2
3
Calcium di(12-hydroxystearate)
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Additives for Grease Applications 593
The type and structure of the grease thickener affect the stability of the grease during and after
shear forces are applied. In bench tests, lithium-thickened greases have been shown to have the
least reduction in shear stress and lm thickness. Less structural resistance was found for calcium-,
sodium-, and bentonite- (clay-) thickened greases [28]. Performance features and application of
greases as a function of the types of thickener are summarized in Table 23.4 [2].
Greases are like other lubricants in that they exhibit limited useful lifetimes. The length of time
that the grease maintains the property and performance criteria for which it was designed depends
on all the factors affecting other lubricants. In addition, grease structure is affected by the thermal,
mechanical, and oxidative stresses related to the thickener structure. As grease ages, it may become
dry and brittle under the conditions of the application and, therefore, will not exhibit the lubricating
properties and performance for which the grease was originally designed.
The general performance and properties of grease as a function of thickener are as follows:
1. An aluminum soap-thickened grease generally exhibits excellent water resistance, poor
mechanical stability, excellent oxidative stability, good oil separation, poor pumpability,
and in general can be used to a maximum application temperature of 175°F (79.5°C).
2. A calcium soap-thickened grease generally exhibits excellent water resistance, fair mechan-
ical stability, poor oxidative stability, excellent antirust performance, fair pumpability, and
in general can be used to a maximum application temperature of 250°F (121°C).
3. A lithium soap-thickened grease generally exhibits good water resistance, excellent
mechanical stability, good to excellent oxidative stability, poor to excellent antirust perfor-
mance depending on the formulation, fair to excellent pumpability, and in general can be
used to a maximum application temperature of 275°F (135°C).
4. An aluminum complex soap-thickened grease generally exhibits excellent water resistance,
good to excellent mechanical stability, good pumpability, and in general can be used to a
maximum application temperature of 350°F (177°C).
TABLE 23.4
Performance Features and Applications of Greases as a Function of Thickener
Thickener Performance Features Applications
Aluminum soap Low dropping point, excellent water resistance Low-speed bearings, wet applications
Calcium soap Low dropping point, excellent water resistance Bearings in wet applications, railroad rail
lubricants
Sodium soap Poor water resistance, good adhesive properties Older industrial equipment requiring
frequent relubrication
Lithium soap Higher dropping point, resistance to softening
and leakage, moderate water resistance
Automotive chassis, automotive wheel
bearings, general industrial grease
Calcium complex Excellent water resistance, inherent EP/load-
carrying capability
High-temperature industrial and
automotive bearing applications
Lithium complex Resistance to softening and leakage, moderate
water resistance
Automotive wheel bearings, high-
temperature industrial rolling-element
applications
Aluminum complex Excellent water resistance, resistance to
softening, good pumpability, reversibility
Steel mill roll neck bearings, rolling-
element and plain bearings, high-
temperature industrial applications,
food processing machinery
Polyurea (nonsoap) Good water resistance, oxidation resistant, less
resistance to softening and leakage
Industrial rolling-element bearings,
automotive constant velocity joints
Organoclay (nonsoap) Resistance to leakage, good water resistance,
thickener has no melting point
High-temperature bearing with frequent
relubrication
CRC_59645_Ch023.indd 593CRC_59645_Ch023.indd 593 10/31/2008 3:18:48 PM10/31/2008 3:18:48 PM