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164 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
to note that the U.S. military and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) have their own
performance requirements, which are over and above those of the API. Although the details of
various tests are available in these standards and elsewhere [119], the important engine tests that
evaluate a dispersant’s performance are listed in Tables 5.1 through 5.4.
TABLE 5.1
U.S. Gasoline Engine Tests
Engine Test Engine Type Evaluation Criteria
CRC L-38 CLR single-cylinder engine Bearing corrosion, sludge, varnish, oil
oxidation, and viscosity change
ASTM sequence IIIE 1987 Buick V6 engine Sludge, varnish, wear, and viscosity change
ASTM sequence IIIF 1996 Buick V6 engine Sludge, varnish, wear, and viscosity change
ASTM sequence VE Ford Dual-Plug head four-cylinder engine Sludge, varnish, and wear
ASTM sequence VG Ford V8 engine Sludge, varnish, and wear
TEOST Bench test Thermal and oxidative stability
High-temperature deposit test Bench test High-temperature deposits
TABLE 5.2
U.S. Diesel Engine Tests
Engine Test Engine Type Evaluation Criteria
Caterpillar 1K Caterpillar single-cylinder engine Piston deposits and oil consumption
Caterpillar 1M-PC Caterpillar single-cylinder engine Piston deposits and oil consumption
Caterpillar 1N Caterpillar single-cylinder engine Piston deposits and oil consumption
Caterpillar 1P Caterpillar single-cylinder engine Piston deposits and oil consumption
Mack T-6 Multicylinder engine Piston deposits, wear, oil
consumption, and oil thickening
Mack T-7 Multicylinder engine Oil thickening
Mack T-8 Multicylinder engine Oil thickening
Mack T-9 Multicylinder engine Soot thickening
TABLE 5.3
European Gasoline Engine Tests
Engine Test Engine Type Evaluation Criteria
ASTM sequence IIIE Six-cylinder engine High-temperature oxidation (sludge, varnish,
wear, and viscosity increase)
ASTM sequence VE Four-cylinder engine Low-temperature sludge, varnish, and wear
Peugeot TU-3M high temperature Four-cylinder single-point
injection engine
Piston deposits, ring sticking, viscosity
increase
M-B M111 black sludge Four-cylinder multipoint
injection engine
Engine sludge and cam wear
VW 1302 Four-cylinder carbureted engine Piston deposits, varnish, wear, and oil
consumption
VW T-4 Four-cylinder multipoint
injection engine
Extended drain capability
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Dispersants 165
As mentioned earlier, soot-related viscosity increase and deposit-related factors are the primary
criteria for evaluating a dispersant’s performance. Moreover, as commented in Chapter 4, neutral
detergents (soaps) also help control deposits such as varnish, lacquer, sludge, and carbon. There-
fore, besides the control of soot-related viscosity increase, which is the sole domain of dispersants,
deposit control is the result of a joint performance of the detergent and the dispersant. However, in
this regard, the dispersant plays a more prominent role.
Besides engine oils, transmission uids are the primary users of dispersants. Certain parts of the
transmission see very high temperatures, which lead to extensive lubricant oxidation. The oxidation
products, such as sludge and varnish, appear on parts; for instance, clutch housing, clutch piston,
control valve body, and oil screen components. This can impair the functioning of these parts.
A turbohydramatic oxidation test (THOT) is used to determine a transmission uid’s oxidative
stability.
Polymeric dispersants are useful in controlling sludge buildup [129]. When friction modi cation
of the transmission uid is the goal, either dispersants or their precursors, such as alkenylsuccinic
acids or anhydrides, are used in combination with metal sulfonates [130–134]. In many such formu-
lations, the borated dispersant and the borated detergent (metal sulfonate) are used.
Dispersants are used in gear oils to improve their properties also. Gear oils usually contain
thermally labile extreme-pressure additives. Their decomposition by-products are highly polar,
and dispersants are used to contain them to avoid corrosion and deposit formation [135,136].
Polymeric dispersants are used in hydraulic uids to overcome wet ltration (Association Française
de Normalisation [AFNOR]) problems, which is often required for HF-0-type uids [137]. Fil-
tration problems occur due to the interaction of water with metal sulfonate detergent and zinc
dialkyldithiophosphate that are used as additives in hydraulic uid formulations. Fouling is a
common problem in many processes, including re nery processes. Fouling refers to the depo-
sition of various inorganic and organic materials, such as salt, dirt, and asphaltenes, on heat-
transfer surfaces and other processing equipment. This results in poor heat transfer, among other
problems. Antifoulants are chemicals used in re nery operations to overcome fouling. Detergents
and dispersants are often used for this purpose [138–140].
TABLE 5.4
Current European Diesel Engine Tests
Engine Test Engine Type Evaluation Criteria
VW 1.6TC diesel intercooler Four-cylinder engine Piston deposits, varnish, and ring
sticking
VW D1 Four-cylinder direct-injection engine Piston deposits, viscosity increase, and
ring sticking
Peugeot XUD11ATE Four-cylinder indirect-injection engine Piston deposits and viscosity increase
Peugeot XUD11BTE Four-cylinder indirect-injection engine Piston deposits and viscosity increase
M-B OM 602A Five-cylinder indirect-injection engine Engine wear and cleanliness
M-B OM 364A/LA Four-cylinder direct-injection engine Bore polishing, piston deposits,
varnish, sludge, wear, and oil
consumption
M-B OM 441LA Six-cylinder direct-injection engine Piston deposits, bore polishing, wear,
oil consumption, valve train condition,
and turbo deposits
MAN 5305 Single-cylinder engine Piston deposits, bore polishing, and oil
consumption
Mack T-8 Multicylinder engine Soot-related oil thickening
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166 Lubricant Additives: Chemistry and Applications
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Part 2
Film-Forming Additives
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173
6
Selection and Application
of Solid Lubricants as
Friction Modifi ers
Gino Mariani
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 173
6.2 Solid Lubricant Properties .................................................................................................... 175
6.2.1 Graphite ..................................................................................................................... 175
6.2.1.1 Sources of Graphite ..................................................................................... 177
6.2.1.2 Lubrication .................................................................................................. 178
6.2.2 Molybdenum Disul de .............................................................................................. 179
6.2.3 Boron Nitride ............................................................................................................180
6.2.4 Polytetra uoroethylene ............................................................................................. 181
6.3 Preparation for Lubricant Application .................................................................................. 182
6.4 Applications .......................................................................................................................... 185
6.4.1 Wear Protection and General Lubrication ................................................................. 185
6.4.2 Lubrication for Plastic Deformation of Metals ......................................................... 189
References ...................................................................................................................................... 194
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Solid lubricants are considered to be any solid material that reduces friction and mechanical
interactions between surfaces in relative motion against the action of a load. Solid lubricants offer
alternatives to the lubricant formulator for situations where traditional liquid additives fall short
on performance. An example is a high-temperature lubrication condition in which oxidation and
decomposition of the liquid lubricant will certainly occur, resulting in lubrication failure. Another
example is for situations that generate high loads and contact stresses on bearing points of mating
surfaces, producing a squeeze-out of the liquid lubricant and a resulting lubricant starvation
(see Figure 6.1).
Solid lubricants, used as a dry lm or as an additive in a liquid, provide enhanced lubrication
for many different types of applications. Typical hot-temperature applications include oven chain
lubrication and metal deformation processes such as hot forging. Solid lubricants are also helpful
for ambient-temperature applications such as drawing and stamping of sheet metal or bar stock.
Solid lubricants are effectively used in antiseize compounds and threading compounds, which pro-
vide a sealing function and a friction reduction effect for threaded pipe assembly [1]. Applications
involving low sliding speeds and high contact loads, such as for gear lubrication, also bene t from
solid lubricants. The solid lubricant effectively provides the required wear protection and load-
bearing performance necessary from gear oil, especially capable when used with lower-viscosity
base oils.
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