Preiser W., Smith K.H. Universal Design Handbook
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19.2 PUBLIC SPACES, PRIVATE SPACES, PRODUCTS, AND TECHNOLOGIES
climb into the carts. Clearly, the use of shuttles is a provisional solution used to overcome poor design.
As the population ages, one can expect that demand for such assistance will increase. Thus, creative
solutions to terminal design should be developed to integrate such vehicles into the overall circulation
scheme or, better yet, provide a more universal transit system for all passengers (see Fig. 19.1).
Level changes within transportation terminals are accommodated the same way they would be in
any multilevel structure—with elevators, stairs, and ramps. In terminals where access to some zones is
restricted, however, providing an accessible path of travel is complicated by the need to provide accom-
modations in the areas on either side of security barriers or fare collection gates. One of the most serious
problems faced by people with mobility impairments is being forced to rely on assistance to negotiate
changes in level or to get through security checkpoints and fare gates. This often results in inconve-
nience, embarrassment, frustration, and exposure to injury by poorly trained attendants (Kawauchi,
1999). Careful design can reduce the need for duplicate elevators or ramps, e.g., a system that keeps all
passengers at the same level from the time they enter the terminal until they depart. Universal design
FIGURE 19.1 The Detroit Metro Airport has three methods of circula-
tion: a wide pedestrian promenade, sliding walkways located in the middle
of the promenade, and an elevated electric train link.
Long description: This photo shows an overhead view of the interior
of the main terminal space in the Detroit Metro Airport. It illustrates the
three methods of circulation: a wide pedestrian promenade, a sliding
walkway located in the middle of the promenade, and an elevated elec-
tric train link. The promenade is about 16 ft (5 m) wide on both sides of
the moving walkway. The moving walkways go in opposite directions
and are divided into segments about 200 ft long. The photo shows over-
head signage prominently using white characters on black backgrounds.
Many people are included in the photo both walking and waiting.
UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN MASS TRANSPORTATION 19.3
Recommendations for Terminal Design
• Make all services and destinations as visible as possible.
• Plan terminals to minimize the distance of trips within the terminal.
• Integrate transit systems into large terminal design.
• Provide automated walkways wherever there are long pedestrian paths in terminals.
• Plan terminals to separate courtesy carts from pedestrian traffi c.
• Plan terminals to reduce level changes, checkpoints, and fare collection to a minimum.
• Provide wheelchair accessibility to all loading areas.
• Maintain a continuous accessible circulation path in front of, through, and beyond
security checkpoints and fare collection gates.
reduces the need for special training for staff, reduces the potential for accidents, and improves produc-
tivity, as workers do not have to leave their posts as often to assist individual travelers.
19.3 INFORMATION RESOURCES
All transportation terminals must include information resources to make travelers aware of schedules, routes,
boarding locations, amenities (e.g., restrooms and food services), late-breaking news on schedule changes,
and other announcements. The ability to use these resources effectively is critical for the traveler.
Sign systems should be easy to read, with fonts that are large enough to be seen at a distance and
contrasting text and background. Signs should be located in the most visible position, which is usually
overhead for signs directing people to key destinations. In general, most contemporary sign systems used
in large intercity terminals fulfill all these criteria, although in intracity systems there is less emphasis on the
usability of signs. The use of international symbols for common destinations is a major aid to the traveler
who has sight but cannot read the languages available. The trend toward the use of dynamic signs implies
that additional criteria should be identified that would ensure that the rate of information presented is within
the abilities of people with sensory and cognitive limitations to perceive. One of the benefits of dynamic
signs is that it costs no more to provide information in different languages with cycling messages.
Real-time information on delays, gate and route changes, and arrival times is a particularly important
concern of travelers. Message boards and video/computer monitors are replacing many public address
announcements in terminals. They are also being used at transportation stops to inform riders of the estimat-
ed arrival times of vehicles en route. But message boards do not always have the same late-breaking informa-
tion that is provided by public address systems, such as the reasons for delays, and they may not update fast
enough to keep up with recent announcements. Moreover, they are limited to strategic locations.
The Internet can be used to provide real-time information in both audible and visual modes
anywhere in a terminal via Wi-Fi enabled devices. Some transportation agencies have implemented
web-based sites where travelers can download trip planning information. The most sophisticated
sites also provide alternatives to inaccessible routes and even adjust the routes when elevators are not
in service. However, these services have not yet been extended to real-time information accessible
at terminals and stops and on vehicles.
Tactile maps and tactile guide strips are useful in helping people with visual impairments find
important destinations (see Chap. 42). These devices could be designed to benefit all travelers. For
example, a tactile map provides more information than a two-dimensional map and can include
color-coding and other visual features to make it useful for everyone.
A promising technology for helping people with visual impairments find their way in transportation
systems is the talking sign (see Fig. 19.2) (Golledge et al., 1998; Crandall et al., 1999). Talking signs
require a handheld receiver and a clear and uninterrupted line of sight between receiver and transmitter,
and the receiver must be pointed roughly in the direction of the transmitter to pick up the signal. However,
experience with the technology has identified solutions to most problems. GPS navigation is not yet avail-
able inside buildings, but there are R&D efforts underway to provide localization information where GPS
19.4 PUBLIC SPACES, PRIVATE SPACES, PRODUCTS, AND TECHNOLOGIES
signals are not available. Research is also underway on the use of camera phones to help people with
visual impairments find and read visual signage.
FIGURE 19.2 The CALTRANS commuter train station in downtown San Francisco is equipped with remote infrared
signs or “talking signs.” They are installed above doors to key spaces such as entry doors and entries to public bath-
rooms.
Long description: These two photos of the CALTRANS commuter train station in downtown San Francisco show
installations of remote infrared signs or “talking signs.” One shows the sign installed above an entry door and the other
above the entries to public bathrooms. The signs are small black squares and identified by black arrows at a 45° angle.
In the first photo, the doors and frame are painted bright red. In the second photo, a man and a woman dressed in black
are entering the respective restrooms. The woman is wearing a long coat and has long dark hair. The man is wearing a
short jacket and black jeans. The restrooms are marked with two sets of signs, both a set required by the ADA to the side
of the door and another set required by California accessibility code on the door. The California signs have a triangle
shape for the men’s room and a circle shape for the ladies room. The hung ceiling has recessed circular light fixtures.
Recommendations for Information Resource Design
• Text on signs should be in a large, easy-to-read font and should contrast with its
background.
• Directional signs should be overhead and should be directly related to the location
described or the path to it.
• Use international symbols wherever possible.
• Use multiple languages.
• Provide information kiosks or human information clerks.
• Provide text-based information for public address announcements.
• Provide navigational aids that are usable by people with visual impairments.
19.4 LOADING VEHICLES
One of the most difficult issues in universal design of transportation systems is accommodating level changes
to board and exit vehicles. There are two basic accommodation strategies that can be used separately or in
tandem. The first focuses on design of the transit stop and the second on design of the vehicle.
UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN MASS TRANSPORTATION 19.5
In new systems for rail and bus transit, loading platforms should be at the same level as the vehicle
floor. The gap between the platform and the vehicle must be narrow to prevent wheelchairs and walking
aids from getting caught in the gap and to reduce tripping and falling hazards for people who are ambu-
latory. To ensure continuity of access, consistency in platform height across a system and over time is
important, so standards have to be established for both rolling stock and terminal construction. In existing
systems where there are small inconsistencies in the gap or a generally large gap between vehicle floor
and boarding platform, vehicles will have to be fitted with small ramps called bridge plates. Where there
are great differences in levels, lifts, or folding ramps provided on vehicles may be needed.
There are several technologies available to reduce or compensate for the level change between
buses and streetcars and the loading surface. The best practice today is the low-floor vehicle that
is within one step of the ground (see Fig. 19.3). This benefits children, parents with children, older
people, and people with limitations of mobility. It also helps people with visual impairments,
because it reduces the complexity of entering and exiting a strange vehicle. By loading directly onto
sidewalks or raised platforms from a low-floor vehicle, the difference between vehicle and landing
levels can be almost eliminated. Where loading takes place to the roadway level, a short ramp can be
used with the low-floor bus that folds out or telescopes. Several types of wheelchair lifts are available
for high-floor transit buses. They include lifts that slide out from under the bus floor and lifts that are
integrated into the stairs of the bus and fold out when needed.
FIGURE 19.3 Low-floor buses have ramps to bridge the horizontal and vertical gaps from the boarding platform,
sidewalk, or street. The two photographs show a folding ramp in the stowed position and a wheelchair user descending
a deployed ramp.
Long description: This figure has two photos of a ramp at the entry to a low-floor bus. One photo shows the folding
ramp in the stowed position. The other shows a middle-aged male wheelchair user descending a deployed ramp. The
ramp perimeter is colored bright yellow, and the surface is black. The bus is white with a blue horizontal accent stripe.
(Colors not shown in this black and white photo.)
19.6 PUBLIC SPACES, PRIVATE SPACES, PRODUCTS, AND TECHNOLOGIES
Avoiding falls off loading platforms is a major safety issue for all transportation riders but par-
ticularly for individuals with visual impairments. Several methods can be used to protect the trav-
eler from falling. Visible, audible, and tactile signals should all be used at once to provide redundant
modes of information. Warning signals provide advance notification that vehicles are about to arrive
at the platform. Lights and announcements can notify passengers of arriving vehicles. Platform
edges can be marked with textures such as rough concrete or stone, applied resilient plastic materi-
als, and contrasting paving materials such as concrete against brick. There is great concern as to
whether any of these methods are effective in warning pedestrians, particularly people with visual
impairments (Richmond and Steinfeld, 1999). Several materials have been developed to provide an
effective tactile warning. Tactile tiles are manufactured as a modular plastic or composite tile with
a pattern of small raised domes or ridges, usually with a bright yellow color. This material has been
used extensively, particularly in Japan. Kanbayashi (1999) reported that people with visual impair-
ments still fall onto the track despite the presence of these tiles at the edge of the platform.
The most secure system for protecting waiting passengers at the platform edge is a physical
barrier along the entire platform. In new subway stations, guardrails and even complete glazed
enclosures with automated sliding doors have been introduced (see Fig. 19.4). Not only do such
FIGURE 19.4 Safety barrier at station in Copenhagen Metro. The station is a good example
of universal design features that enhance usability and safety for all, including full-height glass
safety barriers with sliding doors along the platform edge, real-time arrival information on an
electronic overhead sign, and well-marked route information with high-contrast fonts and direc-
tional arrows. Boarding locations are marked on the platform with tactile guide strips and is lit
with natural light from a skylight above. Both seating and leaning bars are provided.
Long description: This photo of the interior of a station in the Copenhagen subway shows an
underground loading platform with full-height glass safety barriers with sliding doors along the
platform edge, real-time arrival information on an electronic overhead sign, and well-marked
route information with high-contrast fonts and directional arrows. Boarding locations are marked
on the platform with tactile guide strips. The station is lighted with natural light from a skylight
above. A stairway can be seen in the distance, but an elevator is also provided in the station
although it is not visible in the photo. Both seating and leaning bars are provided. Several people
are shown in the photo waiting for trains to arrive. They are standing, sitting, and leaning against
the leaning bar. The waiting passengers are all young adults, one woman and five men, dressed
casually. Two of them are reading. The station surfaces are different shades of gray. A ticket
machine is seen in the foreground with instructions in Danish.
UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN MASS TRANSPORTATION 19.7
barriers protect people with visual impairments, but also they protect the general population from
falling or being pushed off the platform and prevent attempts of suicide. Whatever the method
used to protect passengers from falling off the platform edge, a uniform design approach through-
out a system eliminates surprises for travelers, especially travelers who have visual impairments.
Recommendations for Design of Vehicle Loading Areas
• Eliminate the change in level between vehicle fl oor and loading surface wherever
possible.
• Provide mechanical loading systems when level changes cannot be eliminated.
• Eliminate the gap between platform and vehicle either by initial design or through
mechanical means when a vehicle stops.
• Protect people from accidents at loading platforms by means of barriers or warning
devices.
• Warn passengers on the platform of arriving vehicles, using both visual and audible
means.
19.5 VEHICLE DESIGN
Wheelchairs are often wider than the aisles in buses, trains, and airplanes; and if not positioned out
of the way, they can create an impassible aisle for other passengers. Perimeter benches, rather than
seating in rows, can provide enough space to accommodate wheelchairs. Removing seats to provide a
designated wheelchair area and the use of folding seats are two other solutions. All these strategies also
provide more space for standing passengers during rush hours, thus increasing overall system capacity.
The extra spaces can also be used for storing luggage, carriages, or bicycles (see Fig. 19.5).
On buses, wheelchair securement devices are needed to prevent injury to both the wheelchair
users and other passengers if an emergency stop is necessary. Two basic approaches are in use. The
first, which is deemed safe for vehicles that travel at low speed in dense urban areas, is a three-sided
compartment with padding around it like that on a car dashboard. Buses in the United Kingdom are
equipped with such systems. In the United States, however, where design speeds are double those
in the United Kingdom, devices that mechanically secure the wheelchair and passenger are used.
New research indicates that many common wheelchair designs are not safe in a crash, even when
fastened to a tie-down device. Standards have been developed for “transport” wheelchairs that are
designed for compatibility with mechanical securement devices and are certified to withstand a crash
at a specified speed. Currently there are no mechanical wheelchair securement devices on the market
that accommodate all wheelchair designs and are easy to use without assistance. Clearly, this design
issue requires much more research and product innovation.
The most difficult problem in passenger seating is on airplanes, where a variety of cost, space,
and safety issues come into play. Currently, most airplane aisles are too narrow for wheelchair users.
Presently, the best strategy is to provide independent wheelchair access at least to the entry of the
plane, where a passenger is then assisted to his or her seat (often with a transport chair), and the
wheelchair is stowed in the baggage compartment. This strategy, however, separates the passenger
from his or her wheelchair and creates dependency on airline staff members that have many other
duties. Wheelchairs are often damaged or lost, leaving individuals stranded without mobility far from
home. Innovative design solutions are needed to develop a system that can accommodate wheelchair
users more effectively.
On long-distance vehicles—trains, intercity buses, and aircraft—people with disabilities, like
everyone, need access to toilet facilities. On many trains and widebody airplanes, access has been
successfully achieved. To conserve space, such facilities are designed so that a wheelchair user can
back in or enter forward, reach all the fixtures and equipment, and open and close the door without
turning around. Automated sliding doors facilitate access significantly.
19.8 PUBLIC SPACES, PRIVATE SPACES, PRODUCTS, AND TECHNOLOGIES
FIGURE 19.5 This low-floor light-rail transit vehicle has wheelchair seating
marked by the international symbol of accessibility (ISA). A large button, also
marked by the ISA, is provided to request help from the train operator when
the passenger wishes to have the ramp deployed. A two-way intercom is also
provided.
Long description: This photo shows a wheelchair seating location on a light
rail vehicle. The location is marked by the international symbol of accessibil-
ity (ISA). A large button, also marked by the ISA, is provided at the side of
the location that can be used to request help from the train operator when the
passenger wishes to leave the car and have the ramp deployed. A two-way
intercom is provided so that the operator can talk to the passenger. The button
and intercom are mounted on a stainless steel horizontal bar installed in front
of a window. There is a vertical stanchion and partial partition separating the
wheelchair location from the car entry. An advertising poster can be seen on the
wall of the train, but it is unreadable in the photo except for the word change.
The walls of the vehicle are very light blue, and there is a radiator along the
wall under the window covered by a stainless steel grill. The radiator has toe
space underneath.
UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN MASS TRANSPORTATION 19.9
19.6 CONCLUSIONS
While many of the lessons learned in the design of accessible buildings are applicable to transporta-
tion systems, there are many concerns not addressed by existing guidelines and standards, such as
dynamic scheduling information. Additionally, many universal design concerns go beyond issues of
minimal accommodation for disabilities, such as the inability to read the local language. Moreover,
high-technology applications are emerging that could increase the options available for universal
design.
In the field of human factors in transportation, there is a developing body of research and infor-
mation on the physical design of vehicles and information systems. However, there is clearly a
need for more research and development. Some specific design issues still have not been resolved
adequately, such as loading vehicles, vehicle interior design, safety systems, and information for
people with sensory impairments. As the demand for mass transportation continues to increase, these
issues are likely to become more important.
The challenge of universal design in transportation is not only to eliminate discrimination in
access but also to ensure social integration. Thus, the perceived value of including universal design
features in transportation systems will be increased if research can demonstrate a value to all travel-
ers, not just for people with disabilities and the elderly.
While the existing mass transport infrastructure is difficult to change, there are many opportuni-
ties for practicing universal design in developing countries and the rapidly growing suburbs of major
cities. Economic development, reducing environmental pollution, and reducing energy consumption
are the driving goals of contemporary mass transportation initiatives. While these goals may drive
infrastructure improvements, designers, developers, and government officials should not lose sight of
demographic shifts and issues of social justice that can be incorporated at the same time.
19.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The contents of this chapter were funded in part by grant no. H133E080019 from the U.S. Department
of Education through the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.
19.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crandall, W., J. Brabyn, B. L. Bentzen, and L. Myers, “Remote Infrared Signage Evaluation for Transit Stations
and Intersections,” Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 36(4), 1999.
Golledge, R. G., J. R. Marston, and C. M. Costanzo, Assistive Devices and Services for the Disabled: Auditory
Signage and the Accessible City for Blind or Vision Impaired Travelers, Working Paper UCB-ITS-PWP-98-18,
California PATH Program, Institute for Transportation Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1998.
Kanbayashi, A., “Accessibility for the Disabled,” Japan Railway and Transport Review, 20, 1999.
Kawauchi, Y., “Railway Stations and the Right to Equality,” Japan Railway and Transport Review, 20, 1999.
Recommendations for Vehicle Design
• Provide space for wheelchair users in the vehicle with safe securement systems.
• Develop universal securement devices that can be used independently.
• Provide priority seating for people who have diffi culty standing during a trip.
• Include accessible toilet compartments on long-distance transport.
19.10 PUBLIC SPACES, PRIVATE SPACES, PRODUCTS, AND TECHNOLOGIES
Richmond, G., and E. Steinfeld, “The Usability of Tactile Warning Surfaces for People with Visual Impairments,”
in Measuring Enabling Environments, Edward Steinfeld and G. Scott Danford (eds.), New York: Kluwer
Science/Plenum Press, 1999.
19.9 RESOURCES
The following resources can be helpful in learning more about universal design in transportation systems:
Access Exchange International. Publishes a newsletter, Accessible Transportation Around the World, with
updates on international efforts to make transportation systems accessible, including developing economies.
Address: 112 San Pablo Ave., San Francisco, CA 94127-1536. Web site: http://www.globalride-sf.org.
International Centre for Accessible Transportation. Supports the development of new technologies and other
methods to make transportation more accessible to all travelers. Address: World Trade Centre, 380 Saint-
Antoine St. West, Suite 3200, Montreal, PQ, Canada H2Y 3X7. Web site: www.jcat-ciat.org.
The Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Accessible Public Transportation. Focuses on improving
transportation for people with disabilities by using universal design strategies. Robotics Institute, Carnegie
Mellon University, and the IDEA Center at the University at Buffalo. Web site: www.rercapt.org.
TELSCAN. European commission research project that develops resource information on all aspects of travel for
people with disabilities. Web site: http://hermes.civil.auth.gr/ telscan/telsc.htm.
CHAPTER 20
UNIVERSAL DESIGN
AT THE URBAN SCALE
Wolfgang F. E. Preiser and Korydon H. Smith
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Throughout the past century, the design of urban environments has relied on codified health, safety, and
security regulations; zoning codes and covenants; and best-practice researches in the realms of sociology
and psychology. Nevertheless, universal design concepts have gained momentum in urban environments
throughout the world in recent decades. Multiple examples of applying universal design principles at
the urban scale can be found in the first edition of the Universal Design Handbook (Preiser and Ostroff,
2001), such as Weisman’s work “Creating the Universally Designed City: Prospects for the New
Century.” What has remained lacking, however, is the use of explicitly defined universal design criteria
in the design and evaluation of urban environments. As such, this chapter utilizes the seven Principles
of Universal Design, developed by the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University
(Story, 2001), to examine the design of urban environments. For each principle, performance criteria are
defined and used to scrutinize a sample of case studies, and implications for control mechanisms, such as
zoning and other regulations, are outlined.
20.2 PRINCIPLE 1: EQUITABLE USE
“The design is useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities.”
Definition
This idea speaks to the democratic principle of equality, meaning that everybody should have equal
access to built and urban environments. “Provide the same means of use for all users, identical
whenever possible, equivalent when not” (Story 2001) promotes equal access to streets and side-
walks, public (and privately owned) buildings, community centers, hospitals, schools and colleges,
transportation facilities, urban and national parks, and so on.
System Performance Criteria
Provide horizontal pathway systems that separate travel paths and surfaces from vehicular traffic,
thus easing pedestrian and wheelchair movement, at ground level, aboveground, or underground.
20.1