Oshida Y. Bioscience and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials

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implants, whereas with the non-treated implants it appeared to decrease after

4 weeks (10.7 vs. 9.9, 12.3 vs. 13.1, 15.2 vs. 9.8, 20.6 vs. 8.7 at 2, 4, 8, and 16

weeks, respectively), suggesting that porous bioactive titanium has sufficient

mechanical properties and biocompatibility for clinical use under load-bearing

conditions [11-203].

The high-cycle fatigue strength of porous coated Ti-6Al-4V is approximately

75% less than the fatigue strength of uncoated Ti-6Al-4V. Kohn and Ducheyne

[11-204] designed their study to separate the effects of three parameters thought

to be responsible for this reduction: interfacial geometry, microstructure, and

surface alterations caused by sintering. To achieve the goal of one parameter

variation, hydrogen-alloying treatments, which refined the lamellar microstruc-

ture of beta-annealed and porous coated Ti-6Al-4V, were formulated. It was

found that (i) Ti-6Al-4V subjected to hydrogen-alloying treatment was is

643–669 MPa, which was significantly greater than the fatigue strength of beta-

annealed Ti-6Al-4V (497 MPa), and also greater than the fatigue strength of pre-

annealed, equiaxed Ti-6Al-4V (590 MPa); however, (ii) the fatigue strength of

porous coated Ti-6Al-4V is independent of microstructure. It is therefore con-

cluded that the notch effect of the surface porosity does not allow the material

to take advantage of the superior fatigue crack initiation resistance of a refined

-grain size [11-204].

11.6. FOAMED METAL

The foam-shaped materials exhibit a continuously connected ligamented, reticu-

lated open-cell geometry having a duodecahedronal cell shape. The foam-shaped

material is in a density ranging from 1 to 20% theoretical, and a cell density of

10–50 cells per linear inch, with material density and cell density independently

variable. Foamed materials are presently produced in a wide range of plastics, met-

als, and composites having either solid or tubular ligaments. The metals include

aluminum, nickel, copper, silver, zinc, leads, tin, magnesium, and stainless-steel

[11-205].

Surface modifications of dental and medical implants are very important for

various reasons. As numerous reports indicate, the surface texture should be

preferably rough for enhanced mechanical retention between the implant surface

and newly grown bone structure. Moreover, increased porosity in the modified

surface layer will show lower mechanical properties than the bulk material, and

their values are close to those of the implant receiving soft/hard vital tissues. This

is the so-called mechanical compatibility [11-202]. Besides this and biological

compatibility, there is the third compatibility, which was proposed by the present

author, and is called morphological compatibility [11-206].

Surface Modifications 363

Else_BBTM-OSHIDA_CH011.qxd 10/6/2006 10:29 AM Page 363

11.7. COLORING

In order to color titanium, there are basically four different methods available:

(1) thermal-oxidation, (2) chemical-oxidation, (3) anodic oxidation, and (4) nitriz-

ing. By either method the color can be well defined by the thickness of the film

(mainly TiO

) formed on the Ti substrate surface. The color is sometimes referred to

as the interference color, which can repeatedly appear under the integral of the half-

wave length of the light [11-207]. Hence, colors, such as rainbow colors, are not col-

ors per se. This is true for the first three methods, but for the nitrizing method, gold

is the color of the reaction product (i.e., TiN) and silver is the color of Ti

As the result of anodization (electrolyte: H

O by 8:1:1 ratio),

CpTi was covered with anodic oxide film as follows: silver (2 V, 25 Å film thick-

ness), light gold (4 V, 105 Å), gold (12 V, 270 Å), golden violet (20 V, 272 Å), dark

blue (24 V, 364 Å), and light blue (30 V, 610 Å). When CpTi (grade 2), Ti-6Al-4V,

and TiNi were heated in air for 30 min at different temperatures, different inter-

ference colors were obtained as seen in the Table 11.1, due to different oxide film

thicknesses (accordingly, different interference index) [11-208].

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