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Automation and Ethics 47.7 Challenges and Emerging Trends 825

47.7 Challenges and Emerging Trends

In this chapter, ethical challenges, dilemmas, and con-

ﬂicts related to automation and enabled or introduced

by automation have been highlighted. The context

of automation and internationalization, or globaliza-

tion of services and businesses bring further need

for rational, acceptable, and sustainable ethical sen-

sitivities and behaviors. These should continue to be

the responsibility of individuals, and of individuals

within organizations, but should also be supported,

monitored, and maintained by automation mecha-

nisms. Therefore, the increasing attention being paid

to ethics in the context of automation, speciﬁcally

from the perspective of education and research, has

been explained. Challenging ethical issues have been

presented and illustrated relative to the dimensions

of technology, security, privacy, property, quality, and

accessibility.

For education and training, the model-based ap-

proach for integrating ethics and socially responsible

automation/computing into the undergraduate curric-

ula, as well as training courses, has been presented.

Examples from automation and computing curricular

perspective have been used, and can be adapted to other

science and technological disciplines, and commercial

and service organizations. For the effective application

of this approach, or similar programs, one needs the

participation of several multi-disciplinary members, in-

structors or trainers. However, the attractiveness of such

an approach is in its ability to engage the students and

trainees meaningfully while still undertaking the pri-

mary task of learning the skills and techniques they

would need to be successful upon graduation or com-

pletion.

For research, certain open challenges in gathering,

mining, and observing user information-seeking behav-

ior, while maintaining individuals’ privacy rights have

been highlighted. Policies, including review boards,

have been and are being developed to address these

ethical concerns. In such situationsa strong rational bal-

ance between advanced research and user privacy must

be maintained at all times. While the research commu-

nity at large would come up with the solutions, privacy,

anonymity, and fair use issues need to be effectively

addressed to demonstrate the innumerable beneﬁts that

such research work can yield for the great beneﬁts of

individuals and of society. Marketing and information

dissemination in a digital world represent an emerging

area of research that can be timely and exciting for stu-

dents, for users, for organizations, and for the public

– for example, issues such as cookies leaving digital

trail mixes on people’s machines, in light of protecting

society, while also protecting individual freedom and

individual rights.

47.7.1 Trends and Challenges

Ethical issues, dilemmas, and conﬂicts, and unethical

behaviors, some of which are horrendous and tragic,

are unfortunately an integral part of the proliferation

of computers and automation in our lives. Major con-

cerns range from privacy, copyrights, and cyber crime

issues, to the global impact of computers and com-

munication, online communities and social networks,

and effects of virtual reality. Articles, books, confer-

ences, on-line resources, social and political processes

have evolved and continue to grow in importance

and inﬂuence, contributing to ethics expertise in di-

verse disciplines. The breadth of multi-disciplinary

scope allows students and professionals to learn, under-

stand, and evaluate the individual, social, and ethical

issues brought about by computer and automation

technologies.

Some speciﬁc trends to consider:

International Policies

Impact of digitized information on individuals, commu-

nities, organizations, and societies, including continued

discussions and necessary development of international

policies on:

•

Privacy

•

Automation quality and reliability

•

Automation security

•

Copyrights and intellectual property

•

Collaborative protocols for rational automation

control, equality of access under authorization pro-

cedures, and trust and authentication agreements

Frameworks and Regulations

Development of ethical frameworks and regulatory

processes are needed for substantial treatment of the

interrelated automation issues of cyber-ethics: accessi-

bility, free speech and expression, property, privacy, and

security.

Self-Repair and Self-Recovery

Research and development of automatic self-repair

and self-recovery are needed to address the risks as-

Part E 47.7

826 Part E Automation Management

sociated with unexpected computer and automation

break-downs, disasters, and failures that open up vul-

nerabilities to unethical, unsustainable scenarios.

Ethical Automation

Research and development are needed of inher-

ently ethical software and ethical automation (in-

cluding ethical robotics) able to automatically han-

dle and automatically help resolve issues such as

media copying, ﬁle sharing, infringement of intel-

lectual property, security risks and threats, Internet-

based crime, automation-assisted forgery, identity

theft, unethical employee surveillance, individual pri-

vacy, and compliance with ethical and professional

codes.

Ethics of Robotic Automation

Major advancements are needed in robo-ethics to ad-

dress the fact that (1) robots and robotic automation

are increasingly more capable, and (2) there are humans

that will increasingly abuse these powerful capabilities,

deploying them in ethically questionable situations and

environments (e.g., in schools, hospitals, etc.) where

ethically wrong robotic automation conduct could have

disastrous impacts on humans.

•

We must develop ways to ensure that automation,

without robots and with robots, will always behave

in an ethically correct manner.

•

We need to be able to trust that automation, through

software-inherent ethics-rationale reﬂecting ethical

human logic (preferably speciﬁed in natural lan-

guages) will always behave under strict ethical

constraints. These constraints must follow previ-

ously deﬁnedethical codes,and be able to limit their

actions and behavior under theseconstraints, always

reﬂecting ethical humans’instructions, even without

human supervision.

The dual challenge in front of us is that as we

develop morepowerful, intelligent, and autonomous au-

tomation, we must also be careful it is not and cannot be

abused by unethical people against us and against other

people; we must also be careful that this powerful au-

tomation does not assume independence to, on its own,

hurt people and inﬂict damage. The challenge for au-

tomation scientists, designers, and managers is that we

need toconsider how toethically control the behavior of

automation and how to ethically restrict its autonomy –

because automation is all around us and because we are

so dependent on it.

47.8 Additional Online Resources

Source materials relevant to ethics and automation are

available from the ACM and IEEE model curricula, na-

tional societies such as ACM, IEEE, AAAS, ASEE,

AAES, AIS, and others, for guidelineson ethics; groups

such as ACM SIGCAS, CERIAS, CPSR, EFF, EPIC,

and other professional organizations that promote re-

sponsible behavior. Their conferences, journals and

materials provide rich, additional topics on automation

and ethics. In addition, the following are several online

resources relevant for ethics and automation:

http://www.bsa.org

http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/risks

http://www.cerias.purdue.edu/

http://computingcases.org/index.html

http://www.cpsr.org/ethics/eei

http://csethics.uis.edu/dolce

http://www.cyberlawclinic.org/casestudy.htm

http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic

(on strategy to secure the cyberspace)

http://ethics.iit.edu/resources/onlineresources.html

http://ethics.iit.edu/codes/engineer.html

http://ethics.iit.edu/emerging/index.html

http://ethics.sandiego.edu/resources/cases/

HomeOverview.asp

http://ethics.tamu.edu/1995nsf.htm

http://www.georgetown.edu/research/nrcbl/nrc

http://microsoft.com/piracy

http://onlineethics.org

http://privacyrights.org

http://www.rbs2.com/ethics.htm

http://repo-nt.tcc.virginia.edu/ethics/index.htm

http://seeri.etsu.edu/Ethics.htm

http://government.zdnet.com/?p=3935

(Modern Wars: Cyber assisted warfare).

Part E 47.8

Automation and Ethics 47.A Appendix: Code of Ethics Example 827

47.A Appendix: Code of Ethics Example

ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) Code of

Ethics and Professional Conduct

Adopted by ACM Council 10/16/92.

Preamble

Commitment to ethical professional conduct is ex-

pected of every member (voting members, associate

members, and student members) of the Association for

Computing Machinery (ACM).

This Code, consisting of 24 imperatives formulated

as statements of personal responsibility, identiﬁes the

elements of such a commitment. It contains many, but

not all, issues professionals are likely to face. Sec-

tion 47.A.1outlines fundamental ethical considerations,

while Sect.47.A.2 addresses additional, more speciﬁc

considerations of professional conduct. Statements in

Sect.47.A.3 pertain more speciﬁcally to individuals

who have a leadership role, whether in the workplace or

in a volunteer capacity such as with organizations like

ACM. Principles involving compliance with this Code

are given in Sect.47.A.4.

The Code shall be supplemented by a set of Guide-

lines, which provide explanation to assist members in

dealing with the various issues contained in the Code.

It is expected that the Guidelines will be changed more

frequently than the Code.

The Code and its supplemented Guidelines are in-

tended to serve as a basis for ethical decision making

in the conduct of professional work. Secondarily, they

may serve as a basis for judging the merit of a formal

complaint pertaining to violation of professional ethical

standards.

It should be noted that although computing is not

mentioned in the imperatives of Sect. 47.A.1, the Code

is concerned with how these fundamental imperatives

apply to one’s conduct as a computing professional.

These imperatives are expressed in a general form to

emphasize that ethical principles which apply to com-

puter ethics are derived from more general ethical

principles.

It is understood that some words and phrases in

a code of ethics are subject to varying interpreta-

tions, and that any ethical principle may conﬂict with

other ethical principles in speciﬁc situations. Ques-

tions related to ethical conﬂicts can best be answered

by thoughtful consideration of fundamental principles,

rather than reliance on detailed regulations.

47.A.1 General Moral Imperatives

As an ACM member I will...

Contribute to Society and Human Well-Being

This principle concerning the quality of life of all peo-

ple afﬁrms an obligation to protect fundamental human

rights and to respect the diversity of all cultures. An es-

sential aim of computing professionals is to minimize

negative consequences of computing systems, includ-

ing threats to health and safety. When designing or

implementing systems, computing professionals must

attempt to ensure that the products of their efforts will

be used in socially responsible ways, will meet so-

cial needs, and will avoid harmful effects to health and

welfare.

In addition to a safe social environment, human

well-being includes a safe natural environment. There-

fore, computing professionals who design and develop

systems must be alert to, and make others aware of, any

potential damage to the local or global environment.

Avoid Harm to Others

Harm means injury or negative consequences, such as

undesirable loss of information, loss of property, prop-

erty damage, or unwanted environmental impacts. This

principle prohibits useof computing technologyin ways

that result in harm to any of the following: users, the

general public, employees, employers. Harmful actions

include intentional destruction or modiﬁcation of ﬁles

and programs leading to serious loss of resources or un-

necessary expenditure of human resources such as the

time and effort required to purge systems of computer

viruses.

Well-intended actions, including those that accom-

plish assigned duties, may lead to harm unexpectedly. In

such an event the responsible person or persons are ob-

ligated to undo or mitigate the negative consequences

as much as possible. One way to avoid unintentional

harm is to carefully consider potential impacts on all

those affected by decisions made during design and im-

plementation.

To minimize the possibility of indirectly harming

others, computing professionals must minimize mal-

functions by following generally accepted standards for

system design and testing. Furthermore, it is often nec-

essary to assess the social consequences of systems to

project the likelihood of any serious harm to others. If

system features are misrepresented to users, coworkers,

Part E 47.A

828 Part E Automation Management

or supervisors, the individual computing professional is

responsible for any resulting injury.

In the workenvironment the computing professional

has the additional obligation to report any signs of sys-

tem dangers that might result in serious personal or

social damage. If one’s superiors do not act to curtail or

mitigate such dangers, it may be necessary to blow the

whistle to help correct the problem or reduce the risk.

However, capricious or misguided reporting of viola-

tions can, itself, be harmful. Beforereporting violations,

all relevant aspects of the incident must be thoroughly

assessed. In particular, the assessment of risk and re-

sponsibility must be credible. It is suggested that advice

be sought from other computingprofessionals. See prin-

ciple 2.5 regarding thorough evaluations.

Be Honest and Trustworthy

Honesty is an essential component of trust. Without

trust an organization cannot function effectively. The

honest computing professional will not make deliber-

ately false or deceptive claims about a system or system

design, but will instead provide full disclosure of all

pertinent system limitations and problems.

A computer professional has a duty to be honest

about his or her own qualiﬁcations, and about any cir-

cumstances that might lead to conﬂicts of interest.

Membership in volunteer organizations such as

ACM may at times place individuals in situations where

their statements or actions could be interpreted as car-

rying the weight of a larger group of professionals. An

ACM member will exercise care to not misrepresent

ACM or positions and policies of ACM or any ACM

units.

Be Fair and Take Action not to Discriminate

The values of equality, tolerance, respect for others, and

the principles of equal justice govern this imperative.

Discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, age,

disability, national origin, or other such factors is an ex-

plicit violation of ACM policy and will not be tolerated.

Inequities between different groups of people may

result from the use or misuse of information and tech-

nology. In a fair society, all individuals would have

equal opportunity to participate in, or beneﬁt from,

the use of computer resources regardless of race, sex,

religion, age, disability, national origin or other such

similar factors. However, these ideals do not justify

unauthorized use of computer resources nor do they

provide an adequate basis for violation of any other

ethical imperatives of this code.

Honor Property Rights Including Copyrights

and Patent

Violation of copyrights, patents, trade secrets and the

terms of license agreements isprohibited by law in most

circumstances. Even when software is not so protected,

such violations are contrary to professional behavior.

Copies of software should be made only with proper au-

thorization. Unauthorized duplication of materials must

not be condoned.

Give Proper Credit for Intellectual Property

Computing professionals are obligated to protect the in-

tegrity of intellectual property. Speciﬁcally, one must

not take credit for other’s ideas or work, even in cases

where the work has not been explicitly protected by

Respect the Privacy of Others

Computing and communication technology enables

the collection and exchange of personal information

on a scale unprecedented in the history of civiliza-

tion. Thus there is increased potential for violating

the privacy of individuals and groups. It is the re-

sponsibility of professionals to maintain the privacy

and integrity of data describing individuals. This in-

cludes taking precautions to ensure the accuracy of

data, as well as protecting it from unauthorized access

or accidental disclosure to inappropriate individuals.

Furthermore, procedures must be established to al-

low individuals to review their records and correct

inaccuracies.

This imperative implies that only the necessary

amount of personal information be collected in a sys-

tem, that retention and disposal periods for that

information be clearly deﬁned and enforced, and that

personal information gathered for a speciﬁc purpose

not be used for other purposes without consent of

the individual(s). These principles apply to electronic

communications, including electronic mail, and pro-

hibit procedures that capture or monitor electronic

user data, including messages, without the permis-

sion of users or bona ﬁde authorization related to

system operation and maintenance. User data ob-

served during the normal duties of system operation

and maintenance must be treated with strictest con-

ﬁdentiality, except in cases where it is evidence for

the violation of law, organizational regulations, or

this Code. In these cases, the nature or contents of

that information must be disclosed only to proper

authorities.

Part E 47.A

Automation and Ethics 47.A Appendix: Code of Ethics Example 829

Honor Conﬁdentiality

The principle of honesty extends to issues of conﬁden-

tiality of informationwhenever onehas made an explicit

promise to honor conﬁdentiality or, implicitly, when

private information not directly related to the perfor-

mance of one’s duties becomes available. The ethical

concern is to respect all obligations of conﬁdentiality

to employers, clients, and users unless discharged from

such obligations by requirements of the law or other

principles of this Code.

47.A.2 More Speciﬁc Professional

Responsibilities

As an ACM computing professional I will...

Strive to Achieve the Highest Quality,

Effectiveness and Dignity in Both the Process

and Products of Professional Work

Excellence is perhaps the most important obligation of

a professional. The computing professional must strive

to achieve quality and to be cognizant of the serious

negativeconsequences thatmay resultfrom poorquality

in a system.

Acquire and Maintain Professional Competence

Excellence depends on individuals who take respon-

sibility for acquiring and maintaining professional

competence. A professional must participate in setting

standards for appropriate levels of competence, and

strive to achieve those standards. Upgrading technical

knowledge and competence can be achieved in sev-

eral ways: doingindependent study;attending seminars,

conferences, or courses; and being involved in profes-

sional organizations.

Know and Respect Existing Laws Pertaining

to Professional Work

ACM members must obey existing local, state,

province, national, and international laws unless there

is a compelling ethical basis not to do so. Policies

and procedures of the organizations in which one par-

ticipates must also be obeyed. But compliance must

be balanced with the recognition that sometimes ex-

isting laws and rules may be immoral or inappropriate

and, therefore, must be challenged. Violation of a law

or regulation may be ethical when that law or rule

has inadequate moral basis or when it conﬂicts with

another law judged to be more important. If one de-

cides to violate a law or rule because it is viewed

as unethical, or for any other reason, one must fully

accept responsibility for one’s actions and for the

consequences.

Accept and Provide Appropriate Professional

Review

Quality professional work, especially in the comput-

ing profession, depends on professional reviewing and

critiquing. Whenever appropriate, individual members

should seek and utilize peer review as well as provide

critical review of the work of others.

Give Comprehensive and Thorough Evaluations

of Computer Systems and Their Impacts,

Including Analysis of Possible Risks

Computer professionals must strive to be perceptive,

thorough, and objective when evaluating, recommend-

ing, and presentingsystem descriptions andalternatives.

Computer professionalsare in a positionof special trust,

and therefore have a special responsibility to provide

objective, credible evaluations to employers, clients,

users, and the public. When providing evaluations the

professional must also identify any relevant conﬂicts of

interest, as stated in imperative 1.3.

As noted in the discussion of principle 1.2 on avoid-

ing harm, any signs of danger from systems must be

reported to those who have opportunity and/or responsi-

bility to resolve them. See the guidelines for imperative

1.2 for more details concerning harm, including the re-

porting of professional violations.

Honor Contracts, Agreements,

and Assigned Responsibilities

Honoring one’s commitments is a matter of integrity

and honesty.For the computer professional this includes

ensuring that system elements perform as intended.

Also, when one contracts for work with another party,

one has an obligation to keep that party properly in-

formed about progress toward completing that work.

A computing professional has a responsibility to re-

quest a change in any assignment that he or she feels

cannot be completed as deﬁned. Only after serious con-

sideration and with full disclosure of risks and concerns

to the employer or client, should one accept the as-

signment. The major underlying principle here is the

obligation to accept personal accountability for profes-

sional work. On some occasions other ethical principles

may take greater priority.

A judgment that a speciﬁc assignment should not be

performed may not be accepted. Having clearly identi-

ﬁed one’s concerns and reasons for that judgment, but

failing to procure a change in that assignment, one may

Part E 47.A

830 Part E Automation Management

yet be obligated, by contract or by law, to proceed as di-

rected. The computing professional’s ethical judgment

should be the ﬁnal guide in deciding whether or not to

proceed. Regardless ofthe decision,one must accept the

responsibility for the consequences.

However, performing assignments against one’s

own judgment does not relieve the professional of re-

sponsibility for any negative consequences.

Improve Public Understanding of Computing

and Its Consequences

Computing professionals have a responsibility to share

technical knowledge with the public by encouraging

understanding of computing, including the impacts of

computer systems and their limitations. This imperative

implies an obligation to counter any false views related

to computing.

Access Computing and Communication

Resources only when Authorized to Do so

Theft or destruction of tangible and electronic prop-

erty is prohibited by imperative 1.2–Avoid harm to

others. Trespassing and unauthorized use of a com-

puter or communication system is addressed by this

imperative. Trespassingincludes accessing communica-

tion networks and computer systems, or accountsand/or

ﬁles associated with those systems, without explicit au-

thorization to do so. Individuals and organizations have

the right to restrict access to their systems so long as

they do not violate the discrimination principle (see

1.4). No one should enter or use another’s computer

system, software, or data ﬁles without permission. One

must always have appropriate approval before using

system resources, including communication ports, ﬁle

space, other system peripherals, and computer time.

47.A.3 Organizational Leadership

Imperatives

As an ACM member and an organizational leader, I

will...

Background Note: This section draws extensively

from the draft IFIP Code of Ethics, especially its

sections on organizational ethics and international con-

cerns. The ethical obligations of organizations tend to

be neglected in most codes of professional conduct,

perhaps because these codes are written from the per-

spective of the individual member. This dilemma is

addressed by stating these imperatives from the per-

spective of the organizational leader. In this context

leader is viewed as any organizational member who has

leadership or educational responsibilities. These imper-

atives generally may apply to organizations as well as

their leaders. In this context organizations are corpo-

rations, government agencies, and other employers,as

well as volunteer professional organizations.

Articulate Social Responsibilities of Members

of an Organizational Unit and Encourage Full

Acceptance of Those Responsibilities

Because organizations of all kinds have impacts on the

public, they must accept responsibilities to society. Or-

ganizational procedures and attitudes oriented toward

quality and the welfare of society will reduce harm to

members of the public, thereby serving public interest

and fulﬁlling social responsibility. Therefore, organi-

zational leaders must encourage full participation in

meeting social responsibilities as well as quality perfor-

mance.

Manage Personnel and Resources to Design

and Build Information Systems that Enhance

the Quality of Working Life

Organizational leaders are responsible for ensuring that

computer systems enhance, not degrade, the quality of

working life. When implementing a computer system,

organizations must consider the personal and profes-

sional development, physical safety, and human dignity

of all workers. Appropriate human-computerergonomic

standards should be considered in system design and in

the workplace.

Acknowledge and Support Proper

and Authorized Uses of an Organization’s

Computing and Communication Resources

Because computer systems can become tools to harm

as well as to beneﬁt an organization, the leadership has

the responsibility to clearly deﬁne appropriate and inap-

propriate uses of organizational computing resources.

While the number and scope of such rules should be

minimal, they should be fully enforced when estab-

lished.

Ensure that Users and Those Who Will Be

Affected by a System Have Their Needs Clearly

Articulated During the Assessment and Design

of Requirements; Later the System Must Be

Validated to Meet Requirements

Current system users, potential users and other persons

whose lives may be affected by a system must have

their needs assessed and incorporated in the statement

of requirements. System validation should ensure com-

pliance with those requirements.

Part E 47.A

Automation and Ethics References 831

Articulate and Support Policies that Protect

the Dignity of Users and Others Affected

by a Computing System

Designing or implementing systems that deliberately or

inadvertently demean individuals or groups is ethically

unacceptable. Computer professionals who are in de-

cision making positions should verify that systems are

designed and implemented to protect personal privacy

and enhance personal dignity.

Create Opportunities for Members

of the Organization to Learn the Principles

and Limitations of Computer Systems

This complements the imperative on public under-

standing (2.7). Educational opportunities are essential

to facilitate optimal participation of all organizational

members. Opportunities must be available to all mem-

bers to help them improve their knowledge and skills in

computing, including courses that familiarize them with

the consequences and limitations of particular types

of systems. In particular, professionals must be made

aware of the dangers of building systems around over-

simpliﬁed models, the improbability of anticipating and

designing for every possible operating condition, and

other issues related to the complexity of this profession.

47.A.4 Compliance with the Code

As an ACM member I will...

Uphold and Promote the Principles of this Code

The future of thecomputing profession depends on both

technical and ethical excellence. Not only is it impor-

tant for ACM computing professionals to adhere to the

principles expressed in this Code, each member should

encourage and support adherence by other members.

Treat Violations of this Code as Inconsistent

with Membership in the ACM

Adherence of professionals to a code of ethics is largely

a voluntary matter. However, if a member does not

follow this code by engaging in gross misconduct,

membership in ACM may be terminated.

This Code and the supplemental Guidelines were

developed by the Task Force for the Revision of the

ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct: Ronald

E. Anderson, Chair, Gerald Engel, Donald Gotterbarn,

Grace C. Hertlein, Alex Hoffman, Bruce Jawer, Deb-

orah G. Johnson, Doris K. Lidtke, Joyce Currie Little,

Dianne Martin, Donn B. Parker, Judith A. Perrolle, and

Richard S. Rosenberg. TheTask Force was organizedby

ACM/SIGCAS and funding was provided by the ACM

SIG Discretionary Fund. This Code and the supplemen-

tal Guidelines were adopted by the ACM Council on

October 16, 1992.

This Code may be published without permission

as long as it is not changed in any way and it carries

Computing Machinery, Inc.

References

47.1 G. Reynolds: Ethics in Information Technology,2nd

edn. (Cengage Learning, Florence 2006)

47.2 H.T. Tavani: Ethics and Technology: Ethical Issues in

an Age of Information and Communication Tech-

nology (Wiley, New York 2006)

47.3 D.M. Hester, P.J. Ford: Computers and Ethics in the

Cyberage (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 2000)

47.4 R.K. Rainer, E. Turban: Ethics, privacy, and infor-

mation security. In: Introduction to Information

Systems, 2nd edn. (Wiley, New York 2009), Chap. 3

47.5 D.G. Johnson: Computer Ethics, 3rd edn. (Prentice

Hall, Englewood Cliffs 2000)

47.6 S. Baase: A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical

Issues for Computers and the Internet, 2nd edn.

(Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 2002)

47.7 J.M. Kizza: Computer Network Security and Cyber

Ethics, 2nd edn. (McFarland, Jefferson 2006)

47.8 R. Spinello: Cyber Ethics: Morality and Law in Cy-

berspace, 3rd edn. (Jones Bartlett, Boston 2006)

47.9 P.M. Asaro: Robots and responsibility from a legal

perspective, Proc. IEEE ICRA (2007)

47.10 J.M. Kizza: Ethical and Social Issues in the Infor-

mation Age, 3rd edn. (McFarland, Jefferson 2007)

47.11 S. Bringsjord, K. Arkoudas, P. Bello: Toward

a general logicist methodology for engineering

ethically correct robots, IEEE Intell. Syst. 21,38–44

(2006)

47.12 D. Dennett: When HAL kills, who’s to blame?. In:

HAL’s Legacy: 2001’s Computer as Dream and Real-

ity, ed. by D. Stork (MIT Press, Cambridge 1996)

47.13 G. Veruggio, F. Operto: Roboethics: Social and ethi-

cal implications of robotics. In: Springer Handbook

of Robotics, ed. by B. Siciliano, O. Khatib (Springer,

Berlin Heidelberg 2007), Chap. 64

47.14 R. Spinello: Readings in CyberEthics, 2nd edn.

(Jones Bartlett, Boston 2004)

47.15 S. Helmers, U. Hoffmann, J.-B. Stamos-Kaschke:

(How) Can software agents become good net citi-

zens?, CMC Magazine 3, 1–9 (1997)

47.16 V. Perri: Ethics, regulation and the new artiﬁcial

intelligence, part II: autonomy and liability, Inf.

Commun. Soc. 4, 406–434 (2001)

Part E 47

832 Part E Automation Management

47.17 J. Sullins: When is a robot a moral agent?, Int. J.

Inf. Ethics 6, 12 (2006)

47.18 K. Himma: Artiﬁcial agency, consciousness, and the

criteria for moral agency: what properties must an

artiﬁcial agent have to be a moral agent?, 7th Int.

Comput. Ethics Conf. (San Diego 2007)

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Part E 47

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