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Detailed Contents 1755
46.6 Example ................................................................... 804
46.6.1 System .......................................................... 806
46.6.2 Impacts ......................................................... 807
46.6.3 Succession ...................................................... 807
46.7 Conclusion ................................................................ 807
46.8 Further Reading .......................................................... 807
References ........................................................................ 808
47
Automation and Ethics
Srinivasan Ramaswamy, Hemant Joshi ........................................ 809
47.1 Background ............................................................... 810
47.2 What Is Ethics, and How Is It Related to Automation? ................ 810
47.3 Dimensions of Ethics ..................................................... 811
47.3.1 Automation Security ........................................... 813
47.3.2 Ethics Case Studies ............................................. 814
47.4 Ethical Analysis and Evaluation Steps .................................. 814
47.4.1 Ethics Principles ............................................... 816
47.4.2 Codes of Ethics ................................................. 817
47.5 Ethics and STEM Education ............................................... 817
47.5.1 Preparing the Future Workforce and Service-Force ......... 818
47.5.2 Integrating Social Responsibility
and Sensitivity into Education ................................ 818
47.5.3 Dilemma-Based Learning ..................................... 819
47.5.4 Model-Based Approach to Teaching Ethics
and Automation (Learning) ................................... 820
47.6 Ethics and Research ...................................................... 822
47.6.1 Internet-Based Research ..................................... 822
47.6.2 More on Research Ethics and User Privacy Issues ........... 823
47.7 Challenges and Emerging Trends ........................................ 825
47.7.1 Trends and Challenges ........................................ 825
47.8 Additional Online Resources ............................................. 826
47.A Appendix: Code of Ethics Example ...................................... 827
47.A.1 General Moral Imperatives .................................... 827
47.A.2 More Specific Professional Responsibilities .................. 829
47.A.3 Organizational Leadership Imperatives ...................... 830
47.A.4 Compliance with the Code .................................... 831
References ........................................................................ 831
Part F Industrial Automation
48 Machine Tool Automation
Keiichi Shirase, Susumu Fujii .................................................... 837
48.1 The Advent of the NC Machine Tool ..................................... 839
48.1.1 From Hand Tool to Powered Machine ........................ 839
48.1.2 Copy Milling Machine .......................................... 840
48.1.3 NC Machine Tools .............................................. 840
Detailed Cont.
1756 Detailed Contents
48.2 Development of Machining Center and Turning Center ............... 841
48.2.1 Machining Center .............................................. 841
48.2.2 Turning Center ................................................. 843
48.2.3 Fully Automated Machining: FMS and FMC .................. 843
48.3 NC Part Programming .................................................... 844
48.3.1 Manual Part Programming .................................... 845
48.3.2 Computer-Assisted Part Programming: APT and EXAPT ..... 846
48.3.3 CAM-Assisted Part Programming ............................. 846
48.4 Technical Innovation in NC Machine Tools ............................. 847
48.4.1 Functional and Structural Innovation by Multitasking
and Multiaxis .................................................. 847
48.4.2 Innovation in Control Systems
Toward Intelligent CNC Machine Tools ....................... 848
48.4.3 Current Technologies of Advanced CNC Machine Tools ...... 849
48.4.4 Autonomous and Intelligent Machine Tool .................. 853
48.5 Key Technologies for Future Intelligent Machine Tool ................. 856
48.6 Further Reading .......................................................... 857
References ........................................................................ 857
49
Digital Manufacturing and RFID-Based Automation
Wing B. Lee, Benny C.F. Cheung, Siu K. Kwok .................................. 859
49.1 Overview .................................................................. 859
49.2 Digital Manufacturing Based on Virtual Manufacturing (VM) ......... 860
49.2.1 Concept of VM .................................................. 860
49.2.2 Key Technologies Involved in VM ............................. 861
49.2.3 Some Typical Applications of VM ............................. 862
49.2.4 Benefits Derived from VM ..................................... 863
49.3 Digital Manufacturing by RFID-Based Automation .................... 864
49.3.1 Key RFID Technologies ......................................... 865
49.3.2 Applications of RFID-Based Automation
in Digital Manufacturing ...................................... 867
49.4 Case Studies of Digital Manufacturing and RFID-Based Automation . 867
49.4.1 Design of Assembly Line and Processes for Motor Assembly 867
49.4.2 A VM System for the Design and the Manufacture
of Precision Optical Products ................................. 868
49.4.3 Physical Asset Management (PAM) ........................... 869
49.4.4 Warehouse Management ..................................... 872
49.4.5 Information Interchange in Global Production Networks .. 874
49.4.6 WIP Tracking ................................................... 876
49.5 Conclusions ............................................................... 877
References ........................................................................ 878
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1757
50 Flexible and Precision Assembly
Brian Carlisle ...................................................................... 881
50.1 Flexible Assembly Automation .......................................... 881
50.1.1 Feeding Parts .................................................. 882
50.1.2 Grasping Parts ................................................. 883
50.1.3 Flexible Fixturing .............................................. 885
50.2 Small Parts ................................................................ 886
50.2.1 Aligning Small Parts ........................................... 886
50.2.2 Fastening Small Parts ......................................... 886
50.3 Automation Software Architecture ...................................... 887
50.3.1 Basic Control and Procedural Features ....................... 887
50.3.2 Coordinate System Manipulation ............................. 887
50.3.3 Sensor Interfaces and Sensor Processing .................... 888
50.3.4 Communications Support and Messaging ................... 888
50.3.5 Geometric Modeling ........................................... 888
50.3.6 Application Error Monitoring and Branching ................ 889
50.3.7 Safety Features ................................................. 889
50.3.8 Simulation and Planning ..................................... 889
50.3.9 Pooling Resources and Knowledge ........................... 890
50.4 Conclusions and Future Challenges ..................................... 890
50.5 Further Reading .......................................................... 890
References ........................................................................ 890
51
Aircraft Manufacturing and Assembly
Branko Sarh, James Buttrick, Clayton Munk, Richard Bossi .................. 893
51.1 Aircraft Manufacturing and Assembly Background .................... 894
51.2 Automated Part Fabrication Systems: Examples ....................... 895
51.2.1 N/C Machining of Metallic Components ...................... 895
51.2.2 Stretch Forming Machine for Aluminum Skins .............. 897
51.2.3 Chemical Milling and Trimming Systems
for Aluminum Skins ........................................... 898
51.2.4 Superplastic Forming (SPF) and Superplastic
Forming/Diffusion Bonding (SPF/DB) ......................... 899
51.2.5 Automated Composite Cutting Systems ...................... 900
51.2.6 Automated Tape Layup Machine ............................. 901
51.2.7 Automated Fiber Placement Machine ........................ 902
51.3 Automated Part Inspection Systems: Examples ........................ 903
51.3.1 X-rayInspectionSystems..................................... 903
51.3.2 Ultrasonic Inspection Systems ................................ 904
51.4 Automated Assembly Systems/Examples ............................... 905
51.4.1 C-Frame Fastening Machine .................................. 906
51.4.2 Ring Riveter for Fuselage Half-Shell Assembly .............. 906
51.4.3 Airplane Moving Line Assembly .............................. 907
51.5 Concluding Remarks and Emerging Trends ............................. 908
References ........................................................................ 909
Detailed Cont.
1758 Detailed Contents
52 Semiconductor Manufacturing Automation
Tae-Eog Lee ....................................................................... 911
52.1 Historical Background .................................................... 911
52.2 Semiconductor Manufacturing Systems
and Automation Requirements ......................................... 912
52.2.1 Wafer Fabrication and Assembly Processes .................. 912
52.2.2 Automation Requirements for Modern Fabs ................ 913
52.3 Equipment Integration Architecture and Control ...................... 914
52.3.1 Tool Architectures and Operational Requirements .......... 914
52.3.2 Tool Science: Scheduling and Control ........................ 915
52.3.3 Control Software Architecture, Design, and Development . 919
52.4 Fab Integration Architectures and Operation .......................... 921
52.4.1 Fab Architecture
and Automated Material-Handling Systems ................ 921
52.4.2 Communication Architecture and Networking .............. 922
52.4.3 Fab Control Application Integration .......................... 922
52.4.4 Fab Control and Management ................................ 924
52.4.5 Other Fab Automation Technologies ......................... 924
52.5 Conclusion ................................................................ 925
References ........................................................................ 925
53
Nanomanufacturing Automation
Ning Xi, King Wai Chiu Lai, Heping Chen ....................................... 927
53.1 Overview .................................................................. 927
53.2 AFM-Based Nanomanufacturing ........................................ 930
53.2.1 Modeling of the Nanoenvironments ......................... 930
53.2.2 Methods of Nanomanipulation Automation ................. 930
53.2.3 Automated Local Scanning Method
for Nanomanipulation Automation .......................... 935
53.2.4 CAD Guided Automated Nanoassembly ...................... 937
53.3 Nanomanufacturing Processes .......................................... 937
53.3.1 Dielectrophoretic Force on Nanoobjects ..................... 938
53.3.2 Separating CNTs by an Electronic Property
Using the Dielectrophoretic Effect ............................ 939
53.3.3 DEP Microchamber for Separating CNTs ...................... 939
53.3.4 Automated Robotic CNT Deposition Workstation ............ 940
53.3.5 CNT-Based Infrared Detector .................................. 944
53.4 Conclusions ............................................................... 944
References ........................................................................ 944
54
Production, Supply, Logistics and Distribution
Rodrigo J. Cruz Di Palma, Manuel Scavarda Basaldúa ........................ 947
54.1 Historical Background .................................................... 947
54.2 Machines and Equipment Automation for Production ................ 949
54.2.1 Production Equipment and Machinery ...................... 949
54.2.2 Material Handling and Storage for Production
and Distribution ............................................... 949
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1759
54.2.3 Process Control Systems in Production ....................... 950
54.3 Computing and Communication Automation for Planning
and Operations Decisions ................................................ 951
54.3.1 Supply Chain Planning ........................................ 951
54.3.2 Production Planning and Programming ..................... 952
54.3.3 Logistic Execution Systems .................................... 953
54.3.4 Customer-Oriented Systems .................................. 953
54.4 Automation Design Strategy ............................................. 954
54.4.1 Labor Costs and Automation Economics ..................... 954
54.4.2 The Role of Simulation Software ............................. 954
54.4.3 Balancing Agility, Flexibility, and Productivity .............. 954
54.5 Emerging Trends and Challenges ........................................ 955
54.5.1 RFID Technology in Supply Chain and Networks ............ 955
54.6 Further Reading .......................................................... 958
References ........................................................................ 959
55
Material Handling Automation in Production
and Warehouse Systems
Jaewoo Chung, Jose M.A. Tanchoco ............................................. 961
55.1 Material Handling Integration .......................................... 962
55.1.1 Basic Concept and Configuration ............................. 962
55.2 System Architecture ...................................................... 964
55.2.1 Material Management System ................................ 965
55.3 Advanced Technologies .................................................. 969
55.3.1 Information Interface Technology (IIT)
with Wireless Technology ..................................... 969
55.3.2 Design Methodologies for MHA ............................... 971
55.3.3 Control Methodologies for MHA ............................... 972
55.3.4 AI and OR Techniques for MHA ................................ 975
55.4 Conclusions and Emerging Trends ...................................... 977
References ........................................................................ 977
56
Industrial Communication Protocols
Carlos E. Pereira, Peter Neumann ............................................... 981
56.1 Basic Information ........................................................ 981
56.1.1 History .......................................................... 981
56.1.2 Classification ................................................... 982
56.1.3 Requirements in Industrial Automation Networks .......... 982
56.1.4 Chapter Overview .............................................. 982
56.2 Virtual Automation Networks ............................................ 983
56.2.1 Definition, Characterization, Architectures .................. 983
56.2.2 Domains ........................................................ 983
56.2.3 Interfaces, Network Transitions,
Transmission Technologies .................................... 984
56.3 Wired Industrial Communications ...................................... 984
56.3.1 Introduction .................................................... 984
56.3.2 Sensor/Actuator Networks ..................................... 985
Detailed Cont.
1760 Detailed Contents
56.3.3 Fieldbus Systems ............................................... 986
56.3.4 Controller Networks ........................................... 988
56.4 Wireless Industrial Communications .................................... 991
56.4.1 Basic Standards ................................................ 991
56.4.2 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) ......................... 992
56.4.3 Wireless Sensor/Actuator Networks ........................... 992
56.5 Wide Area Communications ............................................. 993
56.6 Conclusions ............................................................... 995
56.7 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 995
56.8 Further Reading .......................................................... 997
56.8.1 Books ........................................................... 997
56.8.2 Various Communication Standards ........................... 997
56.8.3 Various web Sites of Fieldbus Organizations
and Wireless Alliances ......................................... 997
References ........................................................................ 998
57
Automation and Robotics in Mining and Mineral Processing
Sirkka-Liisa Jämsä-Jounela, Greg Baiden ..................................... 1001
57.1 Background ............................................................... 1001
57.2 Mining Methods and Application Examples ............................ 1004
57.3 Processing Methods and Application Examples ........................ 1005
57.3.1 Grinding Control ............................................... 1005
57.3.2 Flotation ........................................................ 1007
57.4 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 1009
57.4.1 Teleremote Equipment ........................................ 1009
57.4.2 Evaluation of Teleoperated Mining .......................... 1011
57.4.3 Future Trends in Grinding and Flotation Control ........... 1011
References ........................................................................ 1012
58
Automation in the Wood and Paper Industry
Birgit Vogel-Heuser .............................................................. 1015
58.1 Background Development and Theory .................................. 1015
58.2 Application Example, Guidelines, and Techniques .................... 1018
58.2.1 Timber Industry ................................................ 1018
58.2.2 Paper-Making Industry ....................................... 1023
58.3 Emerging Trends, Open Challenges ..................................... 1024
References ........................................................................ 1025
59
Welding Automation
Anatol Pashkevich ................................................................ 1027
59.1 Principal Definitions ..................................................... 1027
59.2 Welding Processes ........................................................ 1028
59.2.1 Arc Welding .................................................... 1028
59.2.2 Resistance Welding ............................................ 1029
59.2.3 High-Energy Beam Welding .................................. 1030
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1761
59.3 Basic Equipment and Control Parameters .............................. 1031
59.3.1 Arc Welding Equipment ....................................... 1031
59.3.2 Resistance Welding Equipment ............................... 1032
59.4 Welding Process Sensing, Monitoring, and Control .................... 1033
59.4.1 Sensors for Welding Systems .................................. 1033
59.4.2 Monitoring and Control of Welding .......................... 1035
59.5 Robotic Welding .......................................................... 1035
59.5.1 Composition of Welding Robotic System ..................... 1035
59.5.2 Programming of Welding Robots ............................. 1037
59.6 Future Trends in Automated Welding ................................... 1038
59.7 Further Reading .......................................................... 1039
References ........................................................................ 1039
60
Automation in Food Processing
Darwin G. Caldwell, Steve Davis, René J. Moreno Masey, John O. Gray ...... 1041
60.1 The Food Industry ........................................................ 1042
60.2 Generic Considerations in Automation for Food Processing .......... 1043
60.2.1 Automation and Safety ........................................ 1043
60.2.2 Easy-to-Clean Hygienic Design ............................... 1043
60.2.3 Fast Operational Speed (High-Speed Pick and Place) ....... 1044
60.2.4 Joints and Seals ................................................ 1045
60.2.5 Actuators ....................................................... 1045
60.2.6 Orientation and Positioning .................................. 1045
60.2.7 Conveyors ...................................................... 1046
60.3 Packaging, Palletizing, and Mixed Pallet Automation ................ 1046
60.3.1 Check Weight ................................................... 1047
60.3.2 Inspection Systems ............................................ 1047
60.3.3 Labeling ........................................................ 1048
60.3.4 Palletizing ...................................................... 1048
60.4 Raw Product Handling and Assembly ................................... 1049
60.4.1 Handling Products That Bruise ............................... 1050
60.4.2 Handling Fish and Meat ....................................... 1051
60.4.3 Handling Moist Food Products ................................ 1052
60.4.4 Handling Sticky Products ...................................... 1053
60.5 Decorative Product Finishing ............................................ 1054
60.6 Assembly of Food Products – Making a Sandwich ..................... 1055
60.7 Discrete Event Simulation Example ..................................... 1056
60.8 Totally Integrated Automation .......................................... 1057
60.9 Conclusions ............................................................... 1058
60.10 Further Reading .......................................................... 1058
References ........................................................................ 1058
Detailed Cont.
1762 Detailed Contents
Part G Infrastructure and Service Automation
61 Construction Automation
Daniel Castro-Lacouture ......................................................... 1063
61.1 Motivations for Automating Construction Operations ................. 1064
61.2 Background ............................................................... 1065
61.3 Horizontal Construction Automation .................................... 1066
61.4 Building Construction Automation ...................................... 1068
61.5 Techniques and Guidelines
for Construction Management Automation ............................ 1070
61.5.1 Planning and Scheduling Automation ....................... 1070
61.5.2 Construction Cost Management Automation ................ 1071
61.5.3 Construction Performance Management Automation ...... 1071
61.5.4 Design–Construction Coordination Automation ............. 1073
61.6 Application Examples .................................................... 1073
61.6.1 Grade Control System for Dozers ............................. 1073
61.6.2 Planning and Scheduling Automation ....................... 1074
61.6.3 Construction Cost Estimating Automation ................... 1074
61.6.4 Construction Progress Monitoring Automation .............. 1075
61.7 Conclusions and Challenges ............................................. 1076
References ........................................................................ 1076
62
The Smart Building
Timothy I. Salsbury ............................................................... 1079
62.1 Background ............................................................... 1079
62.1.1 What is a Smart Building? .................................... 1081
62.1.2 Historical Perspectives ........................................ 1082
62.2 Application Examples .................................................... 1083
62.2.1 Control without Feedback ..................................... 1083
62.2.2 Feedback Control .............................................. 1083
62.2.3 Energy Management Control Strategies ...................... 1085
62.2.4 Performance Monitoring and Alarms ........................ 1087
62.3 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 1088
62.4 Open Challenges .......................................................... 1090
62.5 Conclusions ............................................................... 1092
References ........................................................................ 1092
63
Automation in Agriculture
Yael Edan, Shufeng Han, Naoshi Kondo ....................................... 1095
63.1 Field Machinery ........................................................... 1096
63.1.1 Automatic Guidance of Agricultural Vehicles ................ 1096
63.1.2 Autonomous Agricultural Vehicles
and Robotic Field Operations ................................. 1099
63.1.3 Future Directions and Prospects .............................. 1101
63.2 Irrigation Systems ........................................................ 1101
63.2.1 Types of Irrigation Systems ................................... 1102
63.2.2 Automation in Irrigation Systems ............................ 1103
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1763
63.3 Greenhouse Automation ................................................. 1104
63.3.1 Climate Control ................................................ 1104
63.3.2 Seedling Production ........................................... 1106
63.3.3 Automatic Sprayers ............................................ 1109
63.3.4 Fruit Harvesting Robots ....................................... 1109
63.4 Animal Automation Systems ............................................. 1111
63.4.1 Dairy ............................................................ 1111
63.4.2 Aquaculture .................................................... 1114
63.4.3 Poultry .......................................................... 1115
63.4.4 Sheep and Swine .............................................. 1115
63.5 Fruit Production Operations ............................................. 1116
63.5.1 Orchard Automation Systems ................................. 1116
63.5.2 Automation of Fruit Grading and Sorting .................... 1118
63.6 Summary .................................................................. 1121
References ........................................................................ 1122
64
Control System for Automated Feed Plant
Nick A. Ivanescu .................................................................. 1129
64.1 Objectives ................................................................. 1129
64.2 Problem Description ...................................................... 1130
64.3 Special Issues To Be Solved .............................................. 1131
64.4 Choosing the Control System ............................................ 1131
64.5 Calibrating the Weighing Machines ..................................... 1132
64.6 Management of the Extraction Process ................................. 1133
64.7 Software Design: Theory and Application .............................. 1133
64.7.1 Project Structure and Important Issues ...................... 1134
64.8 Communication ........................................................... 1136
64.9 Graphical User Interface on the PLC ..................................... 1136
64.10 Automatic Feeding of Chicken ........................................... 1137
64.11 Environment Control in the Chicken Plant ............................. 1137
64.12 Results and Conclusions ................................................. 1138
64.13 Further Reading .......................................................... 1138
References ........................................................................ 1138
65
Securing Electrical Power System Operation
Petr Horacek ...................................................................... 1139
65.1 Power Balancing ......................................................... 1141
65.1.1 The Problem .................................................... 1141
65.1.2 Who Performs Power Balancing? ............................. 1141
65.1.3 Means of Balancing ........................................... 1142
65.1.4 Power Balancing Mechanisms Within the Control Area .... 1143
65.1.5 System Frequency ............................................. 1145
65.1.6 Primary Frequency Control .................................... 1145
65.1.7 Secondary Frequency and Power Control .................... 1148
65.1.8 Tertiary Reserve ................................................ 1150
65.1.9 Quick-Start Reserve ............................................ 1150
65.1.10 Standby Reserve ............................................... 1150
Detailed Cont.
1764 Detailed Contents
65.1.11 Planning Reserves ............................................. 1150
65.1.12 Performance Criteria ........................................... 1151
65.2 Ancillary Services Planning .............................................. 1153
65.2.1 Stochastic Model of Area Control Error ....................... 1154
65.2.2 Minimal Needs of AS ........................................... 1155
65.2.3 AS Bids from Generation Companies ......................... 1156
65.2.4 Procurement of Ancillary Services ............................ 1157
65.2.5 Availability of Self-Regulation Power ........................ 1157
65.2.6 Monte Carlo Simulation of Power Balancing ................ 1157
65.2.7 Control Performance Evaluation .............................. 1159
65.2.8 Case Studies .................................................... 1159
65.2.9 Related Topics .................................................. 1161
References ........................................................................ 1162
66
Vehicle and Road Automation
Yuko J. Nakanishi ................................................................ 1165
66.1 Background ............................................................... 1165
66.1.1 USA – Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Background 1165
66.1.2 European Union – Telematics Initiatives .................... 1169
66.1.3 Japan – ITS Initiatives ......................................... 1170
66.2 Integrated Vehicle-Based Safety Systems (IVBSS) ...................... 1171
66.2.1 IVBSS Systems Architecture .................................... 1171
66.2.2 Forward Collision Warning (FCW) System .................... 1173
66.2.3 Road Departure Crash Warning (RDCW) System .............. 1174
66.2.4 Human Factors ................................................. 1174
66.3 Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) ................................. 1176
66.3.1 VII Benefits ..................................................... 1176
66.3.2 VII Risks ......................................................... 1177
66.4 Conclusion and Emerging Trends ....................................... 1177
66.5 Further Reading .......................................................... 1178
References ........................................................................ 1180
67
Air Transportation System Automation
Satish C. Mohleji, Dean F. Lamiano, Sebastian V. Massimini ................. 1181
67.1 Current NAS CNS/ATM Systems Infrastructure ........................... 1183
67.1.1 Air/Ground Communications Systems and Functions ....... 1184
67.1.2 Navigation and Guidance Systems ........................... 1186
67.1.3 Modes of Navigation .......................................... 1189
67.1.4 ATC Surveillance Systems and Aircraft Tracking .............. 1190
67.1.5 Aircraft Tracking ............................................... 1192
67.1.6 Air Traffic Management Functions ............................ 1192
67.2 Functional Role of Automation in Aircraft for Flight Safety
and Efficiency ............................................................. 1194
67.3 Functional Role of Automation in the Ground System
for Flight Safety and Efficiency .......................................... 1195
67.3.1 Minimum Safe Altitude Warning ............................. 1195
67.3.2 Conflict Alert ................................................... 1195
Detailed Cont.