Nof S.Y. Springer Handbook of Automation
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Detailed Contents 1745
24.3.2 Services Needed for Virtual Service-Oriented Grids ......... 410
24.4 Grid Computing ........................................................... 414
24.5 Summary and Emerging Challenges .................................... 414
24.6 Further Reading .......................................................... 415
References ........................................................................ 416
25
Human Factors in Automation Design
John D. Lee, Bobbie D. Seppelt .................................................. 417
25.1 Automation Problems .................................................... 418
25.1.1 Problems Due to Changes in Feedback ...................... 418
25.1.2 Problems Due to Changes in Tasks and Task Structure ..... 419
25.1.3 Problems Due to Operators’ Cognitive
and Emotional Response to Changes ........................ 420
25.2 Characteristics of the System and the Automation .................... 422
25.2.1 Automation as Information Processing Stages .............. 423
25.2.2 Complexity and Observability ................................. 423
25.2.3 Time-Scale and Multitasking Demands ...................... 424
25.2.4 Agent Interdependencies ..................................... 424
25.2.5 Environment Interactions ..................................... 424
25.3 Application Examples and Approaches to Automation Design ....... 424
25.3.1 Fitts’ List and Function Allocation ............................ 425
25.3.2 Operator–Automation Simulation ............................ 425
25.3.3 Enhanced Feedback and Representation Aiding ............ 426
25.3.4 Expectation Matching and Simplification ................... 428
25.4 Future Challenges in Automation Design ............................... 429
25.4.1 Swarm Automation ............................................ 430
25.4.2 Operator–Automation Networks .............................. 430
References ........................................................................ 432
26
Collaborative Human–Automation Decision Making
Mary L. Cummings, Sylvain Bruni ............................................... 437
26.1 Background ............................................................... 438
26.2 The Human–Automation Collaboration Taxonomy (HACT) ............. 439
26.2.1 Three Basic Roles .............................................. 440
26.2.2 Characterizing Human Supervisory Control System
Collaboration ................................................... 442
26.3 HACT Application and Guidelines ........................................ 442
26.4 Conclusion and Open Challenges ........................................ 445
References ........................................................................ 446
27
Teleoperation
Luis Basañez, Raúl Suárez ....................................................... 449
27.1 Historical Background and Motivation ................................. 450
27.2 General Scheme and Components ...................................... 451
27.2.1 Operation Principle ............................................ 454
27.3 Challenges and Solutions ................................................ 454
27.3.1 Control Algorithms ............................................. 454
Detailed Cont.
1746 Detailed Contents
27.3.2 Communication Channels ..................................... 455
27.3.3 Sensory Interaction and Immersion .......................... 456
27.3.4 Teleoperation Aids ............................................. 457
27.3.5 Dexterous Telemanipulation .................................. 458
27.4 Application Fields ........................................................ 459
27.4.1 Industry and Construction .................................... 459
27.4.2 Mining .......................................................... 460
27.4.3 Underwater .................................................... 460
27.4.4 Space ........................................................... 461
27.4.5 Surgery ......................................................... 462
27.4.6 Assistance ...................................................... 463
27.4.7 Humanitarian Demining ...................................... 463
27.4.8 Education ...................................................... 464
27.5 Conclusion and Trends ................................................... 464
References ........................................................................ 465
28
Distributed Agent Software for Automation
Francisco P. Maturana, Dan L. Carnahan, Kenwood H. Hall.................. 469
28.1 Composite Curing Background ........................................... 471
28.2 Industrial Agent Architecture ............................................ 473
28.2.1 Agent Design and Partitioning Perspective .................. 474
28.2.2 Agent Tool ...................................................... 475
28.3 Building Agents for the Curing System .................................. 475
28.4 Autoclave and Thermocouple Agents ................................... 477
28.4.1 Autoclave Agent ................................................ 477
28.4.2 Thermocouple Agent .......................................... 478
28.5 Agent-Based Simulation ................................................. 478
28.6 Composite Curing Results and Recommendations ..................... 480
28.6.1 Designing the Validation System ............................. 480
28.6.2 Modeling Process Dynamics ................................... 481
28.6.3 Timing and Stability Criteria .................................. 484
28.7 Conclusions ............................................................... 484
28.8 Further Reading .......................................................... 484
References ........................................................................ 485
29
Evolutionary Techniques for Automation
Mitsuo Gen, Lin Lin ............................................................... 487
29.1 Evolutionary Techniques ................................................. 488
29.1.1 Genetic Algorithm ............................................. 489
29.1.2 Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithm ....................... 490
29.1.3 Evolutionary Design Automation ............................. 491
29.2 Evolutionary Techniques for Industrial Automation ................... 492
29.2.1 Factory Automation ........................................... 492
29.2.2 Planning and Scheduling Automation ....................... 493
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1747
29.2.3 Manufacturing Automation ................................... 493
29.2.4 Logistics and Transportation Automation ................... 493
29.3 AGV Dispatching in Manufacturing System ............................. 494
29.3.1 Network Modeling for AGV Dispatching ...................... 494
29.3.2 Evolutionary Approach: Priority-Based GA .................. 495
29.3.3 Case Study ...................................................... 496
29.4 Robot-Based Assembly-Line System .................................... 497
29.4.1 Assembly-Line Balancing Problems .......................... 497
29.4.2 Robot-Based Assembly-Line Model .......................... 497
29.4.3 Hybrid Genetic Algorithm ..................................... 498
29.4.4 Case Study ...................................................... 501
29.5 Conclusions and Emerging Trends ...................................... 501
29.6 Further Reading .......................................................... 501
References ........................................................................ 501
30
Automating Errors and Conflicts Prognostics and Prevention
Xin W. Chen, Shimon Y. Nof ..................................................... 503
30.1 Definitions ................................................................ 503
30.2 Error Prognostics and Prevention Applications ........................ 506
30.2.1 Error Detection in Assembly and Inspection ................. 506
30.2.2 Process Monitoring and Error Management ................. 506
30.2.3 Hardware Testing Algorithms ................................. 507
30.2.4 Error Detection in Software Design ........................... 509
30.2.5 Error Detection and Diagnostics in Discrete-Event Systems 510
30.2.6 Error Detection in Service and Healthcare Industries ....... 511
30.2.7 Error Detection and Prevention Algorithms for Production
and Service Automation ....................................... 511
30.2.8 Error-Prevention Culture (EPC) ................................ 512
30.3 Conflict Prognostics and Prevention .................................... 512
30.4 Integrated Error and Conflict Prognostics and Prevention ............ 513
30.4.1 Active Middleware ............................................. 513
30.4.2 Conflict and Error Detection Model ........................... 514
30.4.3 Performance Measures ........................................ 515
30.5 Error Recovery and Conflict Resolution ................................. 515
30.5.1 Error Recovery .................................................. 515
30.5.2 Conflict Resolution ............................................. 520
30.6 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 520
30.6.1 Decentralized and Agent-Based Error
and Conflict Prognostics and Prevention .................... 520
30.6.2 Intelligent Error and Conflict Prognostics and Prevention . 521
30.6.3 Graph and Network Theories ................................. 521
30.6.4 Financial Models for Prognostics Economy .................. 521
30.7 Conclusion ................................................................ 521
References ........................................................................ 522
Detailed Cont.
1748 Detailed Contents
Part D Automation Design: Theory and Methods for Integration
31 Process Automation
Thomas F. Edgar, Juergen Hahn ................................................ 529
31.1 Enterprise View of Process Automation ................................. 529
31.1.1 Measurement and Actuation (Level 1) ........................ 529
31.1.2 Safety and Environmental/ Equipment Protection (Level 2) 529
31.1.3 Regulatory Control (Level 3a) ................................. 530
31.1.4 Multivariable and Constraint Control (Level 3b) ............. 530
31.1.5 Real-Time Optimization (Level 4) ............................ 530
31.1.6 Planning and Scheduling (Level 5) ........................... 531
31.2 Process Dynamics and Mathematical Models .......................... 531
31.3 Regulatory Control ........................................................ 533
31.4 Control System Design .................................................... 534
31.4.1 Multivariable Control .......................................... 535
31.5 Batch Process Automation ............................................... 538
31.6 Automation and Process Safety ......................................... 541
31.7 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 543
31.8 Further Reading .......................................................... 543
References ........................................................................ 543
32
Product Automation
Friedrich Pinnekamp ............................................................. 545
32.1 Historical Background .................................................... 545
32.2 Definition of Product Automation ....................................... 546
32.3 The Functions of Product Automation .................................. 546
32.4 Sensors .................................................................... 547
32.5 Control Systems ........................................................... 547
32.6 Actuators .................................................................. 548
32.7 Energy Supply ............................................................. 548
32.8 Information Exchange with Other Systems ............................. 548
32.9 Elements for Product Automation ....................................... 548
32.9.1 Sensors and Instrumentation ................................. 548
32.9.2 Circuit Breakers ................................................ 550
32.9.3 Motors .......................................................... 551
32.9.4 Drives ........................................................... 552
32.9.5 Robots .......................................................... 553
32.10 Embedded Systems ....................................................... 554
32.11 Summary and Emerging Trends ......................................... 557
References ........................................................................ 558
33
Service Automation
Friedrich Pinnekamp ............................................................. 559
33.1 Definition of Service Automation ....................................... 559
33.2 Life Cycle of a Plant ...................................................... 559
33.3 Key Tasks and Features of Industrial Service ........................... 560
33.4 Real-Time Performance Monitoring .................................... 562
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1749
33.5 Analysis of Performance ................................................. 563
33.6 Information Required for Effective and Efficient Service .............. 563
33.7 Logistics Support ......................................................... 566
33.8 Remote Service ........................................................... 567
33.9 Tools for Service Personnel .............................................. 568
33.10 Emerging Trends: Towards a Fully Automated Service ................. 568
References ........................................................................ 569
34
Integrated Human and Automation Systems
Dieter Spath, Martin Braun, Wilhelm Bauer .................................... 571
34.1 Basics and Definitions ................................................... 572
34.1.1 Work Design .................................................... 572
34.1.2 Technical and Technological Work Design ................... 573
34.1.3 Work System ................................................... 574
34.1.4 Man–Machine System ......................................... 574
34.1.5 Man–Machine Interaction .................................... 576
34.1.6 Automation .................................................... 576
34.1.7 Automation Technology ....................................... 576
34.1.8 Assisting Systems .............................................. 577
34.1.9 The Working Man .............................................. 577
34.2 Use of Automation Technology .......................................... 579
34.2.1 Production Automation ....................................... 579
34.2.2 Process Automation ........................................... 581
34.2.3 Automation of Office Work .................................... 581
34.2.4 Building Automation .......................................... 582
34.2.5 Traffic Control .................................................. 582
34.2.6 Vehicle Automation ............................................ 583
34.3 Design Rules for Automation ............................................ 585
34.3.1 Goal System for Work Design ................................. 585
34.3.2 Approach to the Development and Design
of Automated Systems ........................................ 585
34.3.3 Function Division and Work Structuring ..................... 587
34.3.4 Designing a Man–Machine Interface ......................... 587
34.3.5 Increase of Occupational Safety .............................. 592
34.4 Emerging Trends and Prospects for Automation ....................... 594
34.4.1 Innovative Systems and Their Application ................... 594
34.4.2 Change of Human Life and Work Conditions ................ 595
References ........................................................................ 596
35
Machining Lines Automation
Xavier Delorme, Alexandre Dolgui, Mohamed Essafi, Laurent Linxe,
Damien Poyard
................................................................... 599
35.1 Machining Lines .......................................................... 600
35.1.1 Dedicated Transfer Lines ...................................... 600
35.1.2 Flexible Transfer Lines ......................................... 601
35.1.3 Reconfigurable Transfer Lines ................................ 602
Detailed Cont.
1750 Detailed Contents
35.2 Machining Line Design ................................................... 603
35.2.1 Challenges ...................................................... 603
35.2.2 General Methodology ......................................... 604
35.3 Line Balancing ............................................................ 605
35.4 Industrial Case Study ..................................................... 606
35.4.1 Description of the Case Study ................................. 606
35.4.2 Mixed Integer Programming (MIP) ........................... 608
35.4.3 Computing Ranges for Variables .............................. 610
35.4.4 Reconfiguration of the Line ................................... 614
35.5 Conclusion and Perspectives ............................................ 615
References ........................................................................ 616
36
Large-Scale Complex Systems
Florin-Gheorghe Filip, Kauko Leiviskä.......................................... 619
36.1 Background and Scope ................................................... 620
36.1.1 Approaches ..................................................... 621
36.1.2 History .......................................................... 622
36.2 Methods and Applications ............................................... 622
36.2.1 Hierarchical Systems Approach ............................... 622
36.2.2 Other Methods and Applications ............................. 626
36.3 Case Studies ............................................................... 632
36.3.1 Case Study 1: Pulp Mill Production Scheduling .............. 632
36.3.2 Case Study 2: Decision Support in Complex Disassembly
Lines ............................................................ 633
36.3.3 Case Study 3: Time Delay Estimation in Large-Scale
Complex Systems .............................................. 634
36.4 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 634
References ........................................................................ 635
37
Computer-Aided Design, Computer-Aided Engineering,
and Visualization
Gary R. Bertoline, Nathan Hartman, Nicoletta Adamo-Villani ............... 639
37.1 Modern CAD Tools ......................................................... 639
37.2 Geometry Creation Process .............................................. 640
37.3 Characteristics of the Modern CAD Environment ....................... 642
37.4 User Characteristics Related to CAD Systems ............................ 643
37.5 Visualization .............................................................. 644
37.6 3-D Animation Production Process ...................................... 645
37.6.1 Concept Development and Preproduction ................... 645
37.6.2 Production ..................................................... 646
37.6.3 Postproduction ................................................ 650
References ........................................................................ 651
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1751
38 Design Automation for Microelectronics
Deming Chen...................................................................... 653
38.1 Overview .................................................................. 653
38.1.1 Background on Microelectronic Circuits ...................... 653
38.1.2 History of Electronic Design Automation ..................... 656
38.2 Techniques of Electronic Design Automation .......................... 657
38.2.1 System-Level Design .......................................... 657
38.2.2 Typical Design Flow ............................................ 658
38.2.3 Verification and Testing ....................................... 662
38.2.4 Technology CAD ................................................ 663
38.2.5 Design for Low Power ......................................... 664
38.3 New Trends and Conclusion ............................................. 665
References ........................................................................ 667
39
Safety Warnings for Automation
Mark R. Lehto, Mary F. Lesch, William J. Horrey ............................... 671
39.1 Warning Roles ............................................................ 672
39.1.1 Warning as a Method of Hazard Control ..................... 672
39.1.2 Warning as a Form of Automation ........................... 674
39.2 Types of Warnings ........................................................ 676
39.2.1 Static Versus Dynamic Warnings .............................. 676
39.2.2 Warning Sensory Modality .................................... 678
39.3 Models of Warning Effectiveness ........................................ 680
39.3.1 Warning Effectiveness Measures ............................. 680
39.3.2 The Warning Compliance Hypothesis ........................ 680
39.3.3 Information Quality ........................................... 681
39.3.4 Information Integration ....................................... 682
39.3.5 The Value of Warning Information ........................... 682
39.3.6 Team Decision Making ........................................ 683
39.3.7 Time Pressure and Stress ...................................... 683
39.4 Design Guidelines and Requirements .................................. 684
39.4.1 Hazard Identification .......................................... 684
39.4.2 Legal Requirements ........................................... 685
39.4.3 Voluntary Standards ........................................... 687
39.4.4 Design Specifications .......................................... 687
39.5 Challenges and Emerging Trends ........................................ 690
References ........................................................................ 691
Part E Automation Management
40 Economic Rationalization of Automation Projects
José A. Ceroni ..................................................................... 699
40.1 General Economic Rationalization Procedure .......................... 700
40.1.1 General Procedure
for Automation Systems Project Rationalization ............ 700
40.1.2 Pre-Cost-Analysis Phase ...................................... 701
Detailed Cont.
1752 Detailed Contents
40.1.3 Cost-Analysis Phase ........................................... 704
40.1.4 Additional Considerations .................................... 707
40.2 Alternative Approach to the Rationalization of Automation Projects 708
40.2.1 Issues in Strategic Justification of Advanced Technologies . 708
40.2.2 Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) ........................... 708
40.3 Future Challenges and Emerging Trends
in Automation Rationalization .......................................... 711
40.3.1 Adjustment of Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return
in Proportion to Perceived Risk ............................... 711
40.3.2 Depreciation and Salvage Value Profiles ..................... 712
40.4 Conclusions ............................................................... 712
References ........................................................................ 713
41
Quality of Service (QoS) of Automation
Heinz-Hermann Erbe (Δ) ........................................................ 715
41.1 Cost-Oriented Automation ............................................... 718
41.1.1 Cost of Ownership ............................................. 718
41.1.2 Robotics ........................................................ 719
41.2 Affordable Automation ................................................... 721
41.2.1 Smart Devices .................................................. 721
41.2.2 Programmable Logic Controllers as Components
for Affordable Automation .................................... 722
41.2.3 Production Technology ........................................ 723
41.3 Energy-Saving Automation .............................................. 725
41.3.1 Energy Generation ............................................. 725
41.3.2 Residential Sector ............................................. 726
41.3.3 Commercial Building Sector ................................... 726
41.3.4 Transportation Sector ......................................... 727
41.3.5 Industrial Sector ............................................... 727
41.4 Emerging Trends .......................................................... 728
41.4.1 Distributed Collaborative Engineering ....................... 728
41.4.2 e-Maintenance and e-Service ................................ 730
41.5 Conclusions ............................................................... 731
References ........................................................................ 732
42
Reliability, Maintainability, and Safety
Gérard Morel, Jean-François Pétin, Timothy L. Johnson ...................... 735
42.1 Definitions ................................................................ 736
42.2 RMS Engineering .......................................................... 738
42.2.1 Predictive RMS Assessment .................................... 738
42.2.2 Towards a Safe Engineering Process for RMS ................ 739
42.3 Operational Organization and Architecture for RMS ................... 741
42.3.1 Integrated Control and Monitoring Systems ................. 741
42.3.2 Integrated Control, Maintenance,
and Technical Management Systems ......................... 743
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1753
42.3.3 Remote and e-Maintenance .................................. 743
42.3.4 Industrial Applications ........................................ 745
42.4 Challenges, Trends, and Open Issues ................................... 745
References ........................................................................ 746
43
Product Lifecycle Management
and Embedded Information Devices
Dimitris Kiritsis ................................................................... 749
43.1 The Concept of Closed-Loop PLM ........................................ 749
43.2 The Components of a Closed-Loop PLM System ........................ 751
43.2.1 Product Embedded Information Device (PEID) .............. 751
43.2.2 Middleware .................................................... 753
43.2.3 Decision Support System (DSS) ................................ 753
43.2.4 Product Knowledge and Management System (PDKM) ..... 754
43.3 A Development Guide for Your Closed-Loop PLM Solution ............ 755
43.3.1 Modeling ....................................................... 755
43.3.2 Selection of PEID System ...................................... 756
43.3.3 Data and Data Flow Definition ............................... 758
43.3.4 PDKM, DSS and Middleware ................................... 759
43.4 Closed-Loop PLM Application ............................................ 761
43.4.1 ELV Information and PEID Technology ....................... 762
43.4.2 Decision Flow .................................................. 762
43.5 Emerging Trends and Open Challenges ................................. 763
References ........................................................................ 764
44
Education and Qualification for Control and Automation
Bozenna Pasik-Duncan, Matthew Verleger .................................... 767
44.1 The Importance of Automatic Control in the 21st Century ............. 768
44.2 New Challenges for Education ........................................... 768
44.3 Interdisciplinary Nature of Stochastic Control .......................... 769
44.4 New Applications of Systems and Control Theory ...................... 770
44.4.1 Financial Engineering and Financial Mathematics ......... 770
44.4.2 Biomedical Models: Epilepsy Model .......................... 771
44.5 Pedagogical Approaches ................................................. 772
44.5.1 Coursework ..................................................... 772
44.5.2 Laboratories as Interactive Learning Environments ........ 773
44.5.3 Plain Talk on Control for a Wide Range of the Public ....... 774
44.5.4 New Approaches to Cultivating Students Interest in Math,
Science, Engineering, and Technology at K-12 Level ........ 774
44.6 Integrating Scholarship, Teaching, and Learning ...................... 775
44.7 The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning ............................. 775
44.8 Conclusions and Emerging Challenges .................................. 776
References ........................................................................ 776
Detailed Cont.
1754 Detailed Contents
45 Software Management
Peter C. Patton, Bijay K. Jayaswal .............................................. 779
45.1 Automation and Software Management ............................... 779
45.1.1 Software Engineering and Software Management .......... 780
45.2 Software Distribution .................................................... 781
45.2.1 Overview of Software Distribution/Software Delivery ....... 781
45.2.2 Software Distribution in MS Configuration Manager 2007 .. 782
45.2.3 On-Demand Software ......................................... 785
45.2.4 Electronic Software Delivery .................................. 786
45.3 Asset Management ....................................................... 786
45.3.1 Software Asset Management and Optimization ............. 786
45.3.2 The Applications Inventory or Asset Portfolio ............... 787
45.3.3 Software Asset Management Tools ........................... 787
45.3.4 Managing Corporate Laptops and Their Software ........... 788
45.3.5 Licence Compliance Issues and Benefits ..................... 788
45.3.6 Emerging Trends and Future Challenges ..................... 789
45.4 Cost Estimation ........................................................... 789
45.4.1 Estimating Project Scope ...................................... 789
45.4.2 Cost Estimating for Large Projects ............................ 789
45.4.3 Requirements-Based a priori Estimates ..................... 791
45.4.4 Training Developers to Make Good Estimates ............... 791
45.4.5 Software Tools for Software Development Estimates ....... 792
45.4.6 Emerging Trends and Future Challenges ..................... 793
45.5 Further Reading .......................................................... 794
References ........................................................................ 794
46
Practical Automation Specification
Wolfgang Mann .................................................................. 797
46.1 Overview .................................................................. 797
46.2 Intention .................................................................. 798
46.2.1 Encapsulation .................................................. 798
46.2.2 Generalization (Inheritance) .................................. 799
46.2.3 Reusability ..................................................... 799
46.2.4 Interchangeability ............................................. 799
46.2.5 Interoperability ................................................ 800
46.3 Strategy ................................................................... 800
46.3.1 Device Drivers .................................................. 800
46.3.2 Equipment Blocks ............................................. 801
46.3.3 Communication ................................................ 802
46.3.4 Rules ............................................................ 802
46.4 Implementation .......................................................... 803
46.5 Additional Impacts ....................................................... 803
46.5.1 Vertical Integration and Views ............................... 803
46.5.2 Testing .......................................................... 804
46.5.3 Simulation ..................................................... 804
Detailed Cont.