Middleton G.V. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
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Tecionic-Eustaiic/Fustatic
Cycle Order
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
CYCLIC SEDIMENTATION
Sequence SiriulyrLiphic
Unil
Siipcrsequcnce
Deptisitlonal Sequence
Composite Sequence
High Frequency Sequence
Parasequence
and
Cycle
Set
Parascqucncc High-Frequencv
C:ycle
Duralion
(msear)
>IOO
10-100
i-IO
0.1-1
0.01-0.1
Rclallvc sca-lcvcl
amplitude
(in)
50
10(1
50
100
1-150
1-150
Relative sea-lcvcl risc/la
rale (cm/l.(K)Oyears}
<1
1-3
l-IO
40
500
60-7(H)
17.5
11
Figure
C82
Orders
of
stratigraphic cyclicity (modified from (Joldhammcr ct JI..
in
Franseen
ct di.
1991,
and Kerens and Tinker,
19971
of such
a
global cycle
of
relative sea-level change, such thai
a
depositional sequence
was
defined
as "a
eon form able sueees-
sion
of
genetically related stratu bounded
by
interregional
tinconlormities
or
their correlative conformities (i.e.. sequence
boundaries)'". Extending their 1977 concepts. Vail I'taf (1984).
Vail (1987).
and Van
Wagoner etal. (1987) expanded
on the
E.won viewpoint such that
a
deposilional sequence
was
interpreted
to be
deposited during
a
cycle ol" eustatic change
in
sea
level starting
and
ending
in the
vicinity
of
the inflection
points
on the
falling limbs
of a
eustatic
sea
level curve. Hence
the term sequence
was
originally linked
to
"third-order"
changes
in
accommodation driven
by
relative sea-level changes
interpreted
as
eustatic
in
origin.
Making
the
logical connection between low-frequency
scismie-seale "sequences"
and
outcrop-scale "high-frequeney"
cycles. Miall (1984) proposed
a
logical extension
of
the original
Vail etal. (1977) terminology
for
stratigraphic cycles
and
introduced
the
term fourth-order cycles
for
cycles with
durations between 0.2 m year
and
0.5 m year. Soon
the
hicrarehy
was
expanded further
for
both clastics
(Van
Wagoner
ctaf, 1990) and
platform carbonate cycles (Gold-
hammer
and
Harris.
1989;
Koerschner
and
Read.
1989;
Goldhammer
ct(d.,
199(1)
and the
term fifth-order eyele
was
proposed
for
high-frequency cycles with durations between
0.01 O.lmyear. Vail ctaf
(in
Einsele c/*;/.. 1991) introduced
yet another subdivision with
the
term sixth-order cycle
for
cycles with durations between 0.01 and 0.03 m year,
a
term also
recognized
and
used
by
Grammer ctaf (1996).
Currently, many stratigraphers
use the
"order" subdivision
realizing that although absolute
age
durations
are
nearly
impossible
to
obtain
and
thus define
the
duration
of a
cycle
with precision,
the
idea
of
a "building-block" approach with
a
hierarchy
of
cycles based
on
some inference
of
duration
is a
valid
and
useful first approach, regardless
of the
type
of
deposit (e.g., Mutti,
1992;
Kerans
and
Tinker, 1997;'MialI,
1997).
A
limitation
of
this approach
is
that each
of
these
"orders" implies
a
temporal order-of-magnitude
for a
given
rock-stratigraphic unit, independent
of
origin, whether relative
sea-level, climate,
or
sediment supply, thus potentially
suggesting some link between duration
and
process. Although
these terms
are
useful order-of-magnitude indicators
of
cycle
duration,
as
pointed
out by
Sonnenfeld (1996) predictions with
regard
to
associated rate
or
amplitude
of
sea-level change,
vertical thickness, lateral extent, correlation range,
or
even
depositional style
for a
given sequenee eannot
be
confidently
made simply based
on
"'order.'
Subdivision
for
clastic successions based
on
a hierarchy
of
stratal units
This approach,
set
forth
by Van
Wagoner ctaf (1990).
recognizes
a
hierarchy
of
stratal units from
the
mm-scale
lamination
to the
km-scalc seismic sequenee. Although
divorced from
the
"order" approach
of his
Exxon colleagues
and
the
inferred eustatic interpretation
of
cycles,
the
Van Wagoner scheme recognizes that
the
basic building-block,
the parasequenee (defined above) is equivalent
to the
"upward-
shoaling cycle" (Van Wagoner
ctaf.
1990.
p.
3).
and
thus
it is
reviewed
in
this overview
of
cyclicity. Principally,
an
objeetive
approach based
on
stratal attributes, each stratal unit
in the
hierarchy
is
defined
and
identified only
by the
physical
relationships
of the
strata, including lateral continuity
and
geometry
of the
surface bounding
the
units, vertical stacking
patterns
of
the units,
and
lateral geometry
of
the strata within
the units. Significantly, thickness, time
for
formation,
and the
interpretation
of
regional
or
global origin
arc not
used
to
define stratal units
or
place them within
the
hierarchy.
As related
to
this discussion
of
cyclicity.
the
following terms
were proposed
by Van
Wagoner etal. (1990):
(1)
the
parasequence (defined above) would
be the
highest-
frequency "fundamental building block"
of
clastic
se-
quences, which could
be
either autocyclic
or
allocyclic
in
origin.
For
example, within
a
parasequenee from
a
beach
deposit.
Van
Wagoner etal. (1990) recognize predictable
vertical successions
in
lower-shoreface. upper-shoreface.
foreshore
and
backshore subenvironments
and
associated
variations
in bed and
bedset thickness, sand-shalc ratios,
and ichnofossil assemblages.
(2)
\.Yic
parasequence set defined
as "a
succession
of
genetically
related parasequences forming
a
distinctive stacking
pattern bounded
by
major marine-flooding surfaces
and
their correlative surfaces" (Figure
C83). A
"stacking
pattern",
as
defined
by
Sonnenfeld (1996) represents
the
progressive lateral translation
in
space
of a set of
cycles
forming
a
geometric arrangement describable
by the
terms
"retrogradational"
or
"landward-stepping." "prograda-
tional"
or
"seaward-stepping."
and
"aggradational"
or
"vertically stacked". Cycle stacking patterns
are
inter-
preted
as the
product
of
systematic changes
in the
ratio
of
accommodation
to
sediment supply
(Van
Wagoner
et al.
1990:
Sonnenfeld
and
Cross.
1993:
Sonnenfeld. 1996).
and such patterns form
the
basis
for
recognizing
176
CYCLIC SEDIMENTATION
RATE OF DEPOSITION
RATE OF AOCOMODATION
PROGRADATIONAL PARASEOUENCE SET
____-- Location of Schemalic
WnH
Log Respnse
SCHEMATIC
WELL - LOG
RESPONSE
1
J
/
1
RATE OF DEPOSITION
RATE OF ACCOMODATION
SP
RES
BATE OF DEPOSITION
RATE OF ACCOMODATION
COASTAL - PLAIN SANDSTONES
AND MUDSTONES
SHALLOW MARINE
SANDSTONES
INDIVIDUAL PARASEQUENCES
SHELF MUDSTONES
Figure C83 Parasequente set stacking patterns (moditied form Van Wjgoner ef al. 1990).
(3)
progressively larger-scale sequences within a hierarchy
(e.g., Goldliammer etal., in Franseen
etaf,
1991. 1993).
Accommodation is defined as the cumulative sum of space
available for potential sediment deposition; It is the
product of eustasy. subsidence, and compaction and is
equivalent in shallow marine settings to relative sea-levcl.
Although two-dimensional in implication (Van Wagoner
('/ (//.. 199U; Kitchen. 1997), where lateral continuity of
cycles is lacking owing to limited outcrop or in the case of
subsurface cores, stacking patterns may be inferred from
one-dimensional analysis of vertical cycle trends (Kerans
and Tinker. 1997; Read and Goldhammer. 1988:
Lehrmann and Goldhammer. 1999).
A sequence is defined as "a relatively conformable
succession of genetically related strata bounded by
unconformities or their correlative conformities" (Van
Wagoner etal.. 1990). Parasequence sets are the building
blocks of sequences. The "transgressive" portions of
sequences are marked by retrogradational parasequence
sets,
and the "regressive" portions of sequences are
marked by progradational parasequence sets.
Hierarchical subdivision based on accommodation/
sediment supply ratios: expansion of
the Van Wagoner etaf (1990) scheme
In this scheme proposed by Sonnenfeld and Cross (1993) and
Sonnenfeld (1996), a cycle or sequence of any physical or
temporal scale is defined as the stratigraphic record of a full
cycle of increasing followed by decreasing accommodation/
sediment supply ratios (A/S)—the base-level transit cycle of
Wheeler (1964). Cyeles. of any scale, that are bounded by
conformable surfaces cannot be defined solely based upon the
erosive or altered nature of ihe bounding surfaces: in such
cases,
the cycle boundary is defined as the "turnaround" from
decreasing to increasing accommodation/sediment supply
ratios as inferred from stacking pattern analysis (e.g.. Van
Wagoner frt;/.. 1987; Lehrmann and Goldhammer, 1999).
CYCLIC SEDIMENTATION
177
Lithostratigraphy
Member
Horseshoe
Shale
Darwin
Sandstone
D
-^
Bull Rtdge
Liltle
Tongue
Big Goose
Woodhurst
Little
Bighorn
"A"
"B"
"C"
"D"
Hierarchical Sequence Stratigraphy
order
of
assimilation into stratigraphic hierarchy
2
^ paleo-
0 bathymetry
"order":
2nd-order 3rd-order 3rd-order 4th-order 5th to 6th order
duration (m.y.): I5(west)-8(east)
stratigraphic
hierarchy:
supersequence
tsensu
Vailetai.
1977)
4-8
composite
sequences
(sensu Mitchum
&
Van Wagoner.
1989)
1-2
depositional
sequences
Isensu Vail
et
al,
1977)
<
1
"intermediate
scale cycles"
"fundamental
cycles"
Figure
C84
Hierarchical subdivision
of
cyrlirity based
an
accommodation/sediment supply ratios (modified from Sonnenfeld, 1996).
In
the
Sonnenfeld (1996) scheme (Figure
C84)
triangles
pointing down
are
used
to
graphically depict portions
of
sequences
tit any
scale characterized
by
decreasing accommo-
dation/sediment supply ("A/S") ratios
as
inferred from
progradational stacking patterns. Conversely, triangles point-
ing
up
denote inferred increasing
"A/S"
as
inferred from
retrogradational stacking patterns. Squares separating
ihe
triangular symbols represent
a
condition
of
balanced
"A/S"
(
-
1)
as
inferred from aggradational stacking patterns.
The
triangles described above
may be
drawn
for
cycles
of any
physical
and
lemporal scale,
and
provide
an
effective graphical
shorthand
for
portraying
the
hierarchieal embedding
of
sequences within sequences.
Sonnenfeld (1996) introduces
the
term "fundamental cycle"
as
the
"smallest resolvable vertical facies succession which
forms
a
"small-scale" cycle
(<1
-20ft).
and
define cycle
boundaries
at
their accommodation minima. Fundamental
cycles
are in
turn grouped into "intermediate-scale cycles"
which
are the
highest-order cycle that
can be
correlated across
large areas (e.g., >IO()kiii). These
in
turn
are
nested into
"third-order depositional sequenees"
(in the
sense
of
Vail
I'ttd..
1977).
which make
up
ihird-order "composite sequences"
(defined below),
in tum
grouped into "second-order super-
sequences". Cycle boundaries
of
lower-frequency sequences
occur
at the
"turnaround" from decreasing
to
increasing
"A/S".
Note that these critical turnarounds
may
either
be
represented
by a
unique surface
or an
interval
of
rock.
Integrated hierarchical subdivision utilizing sequence
stratigraphic terminology
In
a
practieaf efYorl aimed
at
subsurface geologists,
a
scheme
has evolved whieh integrates much
of
the previous approaches.
balancing both
the
objective approach (emphasizing physical
attributes
and
facies relationships observed
in
core
and
outcrop) with
the
somewhat subjective approach
of
assigning
temporally-constrained orders (Figure C!^5). This "sequence
stratigraphic" approach proposed
by
Kerans (1995).
and
utilized
by
Kerans
and
Fitchen (1995). Kerans
and
Tinker
(1997).
Fitchen (1997).
and
Tinker (1998). recognizes
an
ordered hierarchy
of
cycle types based
on a
number
of
objective, rock-based criteria used
to
define
ihe
terms
and
orders
of the
cycles. These include: vertical lithofacies
successions, eyele staeking patterns, lithofacies proportions,
cycle symmetry, strata! preservation, lithofacies tract offset,
and stratal geometry.
The technique first defines
the
"high-frequency cycle"
(the
basic building block, equivalent
to
the
parasequence
for
elastic
deposits)
as
"the
smallest
set of
genetically related lithofacies
deposited during
a
single base-level cycle, which
can be
mapped across multiple lithofacies tracts, which include
multiple vertical lithofacies.
and
thus
are
inferred
to be
chronostratigraphic units" (Kerans
and
Tinker, 1997). High-
frequency cycles
are
grouped into "cycle sets" which
are
"bundles
of
cyeles that show
a
consistent trend, either
progradational. aggradational,
or
retrogradationa! (transgres-
sive}"
(Kerans
and
Tinker, 1997).
The
ne.xt level
of the
hierarchy introduees
the
term "high-frequency sequence"
which
are
intermediate-order cycles bounded locally
by
unconformities. High-frequency sequences
may
have
all the
attributes
of
the
original Vail ctaf (1977) sequenee. with
the
complete suite
of
systems tracts defined
by
parasequences
and
parasequence sets,
and
they
are
bounded
by
surfaces
or
thin
intervals (zones) which demonstrate "base-level fall
to
base-
level rise turn-arounds" (Kerans
and
Tinker, 1997). High-
frequeney sequences can equate to or can he part
of
"composixe
178
CYCLIC SEniMENTATION
High - Frequency
Cycle (cycle)
Texture
MS GS
1-5m
Water Depth Water Energy
shallow high
deep low
-10-20 m
t -
Cycle Set
(2 to 5 cycles)
Cycle shaded
Heavy solid lines represent
cycle set boundaries, and
heavy dashed line represents
cycle set MFS
High - Frequency
Sequence (HFS)
(3 to 7 cycle sets)
Cycle Set shaded
Heavy solid lines
represent HFS boundaries
and heavy dashed line
represents HFS MFS
actual data from
Seven Rivers 2 HFS
(VE - 3)
actual data from
Seven Rivers composite sequence
(VE - 3)
Composite
Sequence
{4 HFSs)
Seven Rivers 2 HFS shaded
Heavy solid lines represent
composite sequence boundaries, and
heavy dashed line represents
composite sequence MFS
Figure C85 An integrated hierarchical subdivision utilising sequence stratigraphic terminology (modified trom Tinker. 1998).
sequences" which is the next level in the hierarchy, often, but
not necessarily, reserved for the Vail etal. (1977) original
"third-order"" sequence.
The term composite sequenee. proposed by Mitehum and
Van Wagoner (1991), resulted from the realization by these
workers that in clastic depositional systems the original Vail
ctaf (1977) "sequence" itself could be composed of several
unconformity-bounded packages or "sequences'". On a parallel
course in the carbonate arena, Goldhammer etal. (in Franseen
etaf.
1991) grouped sets of "fourth-order sequences"' (30 50 m
thick) bounded by subaerial exposure surfaces into "third-
order" sequences for mixed shallow marine clastic and
carbonates.
In summary, the hierarchieal approach universal in the
reeognition. classitication and interpretation of cycles reeog-
nizcs that cycles of progressively shorter duration, or "higher-
order,"" are physically contained within longer-term cycles
(Goldhammer £'f(//.. 1990; Mitchum and Van Wagoner, 1991).
Unraveling the hierarchy of cycles should be a task which is
independent of assigning an origin to the eyeles or quantifying
forcing functions responsible for cycle formation (e.g.,
calculating amplitudes of relative sea-level rise/fall). The
eyclo-stratigraphcr"s goal is to create a physical stratigraphie
hierarchy of cycles contained within cycles contained within
cycles, whereby one can then evaluate the manner by which
facies arrangements within cycles change in a progressive,
organized manner according to position within the next larger
scale (e.g.. "lower-order"") cycle (Goldhammer ct af. 1993;
Sonnenfeld. 1996). Goldhammer ct al. (1990) termed this
concept "the hierarchy of stratigraphic t"orcing"" in their study
of cyclic Alpine Triassic carbonates, an objective hierarchy
which they state is independent of the forcing function
(alloeyclic or autoeyclic).
Postulated causes of cycles—first, second, and
third-order
Once one accepts the plausibility of an ordered, yet imperfect.
existence of stratigraphic cycles, the next challenge is unravel-
ling the causes of cycles, at all scales. For ideas, concepts and
CYCLIC SEDIMFNTATION 179
discussions of this topic, the reader is referred to Allen and
.'\llen (1990). Einsele etaf (1991). Walker and James (1992).
Miall (1990. 1997). Reading (1996). and Emery and Myers
(1996).
Stratigraphic cycles at all orders result from the
interplay of tectonies (typically in the form of basin
subsidence), eustatie sea-level changes (of differing magnitude
and duration), and sediment supply. Other more localized
factors, such as antecedent topography, compaetion, wind-
ward-leeward elTccts, etc. while clearly significant and worth
evaluating, are generally not regarded as the prime suspects
inlkieneing the development of eyeles. Together, tectonics and
eustasy basieally create accommodation space available for
sedimentation, and stratigraphic cycles result from the
intricate interplay of accommodation and sediment supply.
Allen and Allen (1990), Miall (1990. 1997). Walker and
James (1992). and Reading (1996) summarize both tectonic
and eustatic mechanisms that diciatc the creation of accom-
modation within different types of basins. The.se sourees and
many others provide numerous e.xamples of how such space is
filled, and what influences sediment supply which together
generate the cyclieity observed in the stratigraphic reeord.
Reduced to the essential (Allen and Allen (1990). tectonic
mechanisms that effect accommodation include: (1) effects of
litliospheric flexure in (divergent margin) basins due to
stretching (either brittle crustal extension or thermal sub-
sidence): (2) the effects of flexural rigidity on peripheral bulge
foimalion within (convergent margin) foreland basins; (3)
ehanges in regional stress fields of the lithosphere inducing
vertical movements ("intra-plate"* stress).
Mechanisms for inducing eustatic changes in sea-level (Allen
and Allen. 1990) which in turn influenee accommodation
include: (I) continuing differentiation of lithospheric material
as a result of plate tectonic processes, whereby the volume of
water in the oceans may be added by contributions from mid-
oceanic ridge and island arc volcanism; (2) changes in the
volutiielric capacity of the ocean basins caused by sediment
accumulation or by sediment abstraction, such that inequal-
ities might exist between rates of erosion and sediment input
into oceanic basins versus rates of sediment removal at
subduction zones: (3) changes in the volumetric capacity of
the ocean basins induced by volume ehanges in the mid-oeean
ridge system; as the bathymetry of the oeean is dependent on
age.
variations in rates of spreading causes major ridge-volume
changes with the faster spreading ridges being hotter and thus
more voluminous; (4) reduction of available water by locking
up in polar ice caps and glaciers (and the reverse), termed
"glacio-eustasy"; (5) desiccation events due to evaporation of
inland basins and marginal seas, for example the Miocene
Mediterranean salinity crisis: such events could cause global
sea-level rise in other oceanic basins.
As these factors control accommodation space over
potentially large regions, it is the interaction of these factors,
at dilTerent magnitudes and over varying timescales that yields
the cyclic rock record. Given the fact that these variables
operate independently and their etTects (in terms of magnitudes
and rates of space creation or destruction) are not accurately
constrained, it is little wonder why the origin of eyeles has long
been and continues to be a major issue of heated controversy
in the geologic community. Having stated the obvious there is
general agreement over the postulated origins of the different
orders of eyclicity. Kirst-order cycles (200 400myear dura-
tion) are ascribed to supercontinent assembly (i.e., Pangaea) by
sealloor spreading and their subsequent breakup and dispersal.
Eustatic sea level falls during times when supercontinents are
assembled and rises during times of rapid sealloor spreading
when continents have rifted apart and are drifting. Two. first-
order, or supereontinent. cyeles appear to have occurred
during the Phanerozoic (Eigure C86). and global first-order
global climate fluctuations, from icehouse to greenhouse
conditions, have accompanied these cycles.
Second-order cycles are attributed to volume changes in
oceanic spreading centers with more rapid spreading and
hotter ridges, ridge volume increases and eustatic sea level
rises:
with a decrease in spreading rate and cooler ridges, ridge
volume decreases and sea level falls. As discussed above,
broad, regional cycles of changes in basement elevation due to
lithospherie flexure whieh occur in response to divergent,
convergent and transcurrent plate motions are also candidates.
Eor e.xample the Sloss (1963) sectind-order supersequences,
major uncontbrmity-boundcd packages that correlate not only
across North Ameriea. but also with other regional cycles on
other continents demand a global origin.
Of the various possible causes of third-order eustatie
changes only two are plausible candidates for third-order
eyclicity (see Fairbridge. 1961; Donovan and Jones, 1979;
Allen and Allen, 1990: Ein.sele etai, 1991: Walker and James.
1992:
Miall. 1990. 1997: Emery and Myers. 1996; Reading.
1996):
(1) waxing and waning of polar ice caps (glacio-
eustasy), and (2) ehanges in (he volume of ocean basins
(tectono-eustasy). Glacio-eustatic rates of change (up to
1
cm/
year) and total amount of change (150m) can readily account
for third-order rates and magnitude (rates=
I
- IOcm/
lOOOyears; magnitude = 50 300m; Kendall and Schlager,
1981:
Hancock and Kauffman. 1979: Hine and Steinmetz.
1984) but for geologic periods lacking evidence for major
continental glaciation. tectono-eustasy must be invoked as the
cause. Hays and Pitman (1973) and Pitman (1978) have
illustrated that changes in rates of mid-oceanic spreading
centers can induce sea-level changes of up to 300 m al a
maximum rate of
1
em/1000 years. However, tectono-eustasy is
unable to account for all of the third-order cycles in the
stratigraphic reeord, because most third-order cycles demand
faster rates. Thus the origin and control of third-order cycles
remains problematic, especially for periods lacking evidence
for major glaciation.
Postulated causes of cycles—fourth and fifth-order
Essentially four mechanisms have been proposed to explain
the successive stacks of fifth/fourth-order cycles that char-
acterize shallow marine platform carbonate, shallow shelf
clastic, mixed clastic-carbonate, and mixed earbonate evapor-
ite deposits of all ages: (1) high-frequency glacio-eustatie
oscillations forced by deterministic Milankovileh climatic
rhythms; (2) high-frequency aperiodic eustatic oscillations
forced by stochastic processes; (3) autocyclic meehanisms
speeifie to either carbonate or clastic systems; (4) teetonic
pulsing of marine shelves related to successive down-dropping
of platform tops or tectonic "yo-yoing".
(1) Glacio-eustatic (Milankovitch) cycles
Recently, many workers have sought to explain the origin of
high-frequency eyctes through a glacio-eustatic. allocyclic
mechanism driven by climatic cycles under orbital control
(Hays
etaf.
1976; Bcrgcr. 1984: Imbrie. 1985: Hinnov, 2000).
180 CYCLIC SFDIMENTATION
lst-Order
-
Cycles
Relative Changes
of
Sea Level
-— Higher Lower
-
Present Sea Level
Periods
2ncl-0rder-Cycles (supercyctes)
Relative Changes
of
Sea Level
-^ Higher Lower
—-
Present Sea Level
Climate
Global
Tectonic
Cycle
Dispersal
of
Continents
••-Start
of
rifting
— Final
coalescence
of Pangea
Breakup
cf
Late
Prole rozojc
supercontinent
Maximum
dispersal
of continents
Breakup
of
Late
Proterozoic
supercontinent
Figure C86 Illuslration
of
tirst-order and second-order global sea-leve! cycles (after Boggs, 2001).
which
is a
rather deterministic mechanism. Deterministic
processes
are in
essence entirely predictable tuid involve order
with periodicity. Deterministic sytems are appealing because o!"
their predictive capability.
The
general acceptance
of the
Milankovitch theory
for
Pleistocene cycles
has
been provided
by
the
correlation
of the
Pleistocene deep
sea and
coral reef
record with Milankovitch climatic rhythms,
for
example,
as
suggested
for
tlie Pleistocene carbonate stratigraphy
of
south
Florida (Broecker
and
Thurber, 1965: Osmond
ctaf.. 1965;
Perkins. 1977).
An
outgrowth
of the
Milankovitch revival
is
the question
of
whether orbital variations have produced
a
legible stratigraphic signal
in
pre-Pleistocene cyclic stratigra-
phy. Pursuit
of
the feasability
of
pre-Pleistocene Milankovitch
forcing
in
carbonate systems
is
exemplified
by
studies
published over
the
last several years (Grotzinger,
1986;
Goldhammer
et af, 1987;
Strasser,
1988;
Koerschner
and
Read, 1989; Jimenez
De
Cisneros
and
Vera, 1993; D'Argenio
etal.. 1997; Hinnov, 2000).
Milankovitch astronomical rhythms might influence clastic,
carbonate
and
evaporite sedimentation
in
three ways:
(1) by
causing variations
in
continental
ice cap
volumes, which
in
turn would cause eustatic sea-level changes;
(2) by
causing
ocean temperature
to
change sufficiently that ocean water
volume would change;
(3) by
causing climatic changes
in the
tropics
so
that shallow water carbonate production would
change.
Waxing
and
wannig
of
continental
ice
sheets would yield
rhythms
of
submergence
and
emergence across shallow marine
shelves (Hardie
and
Shinn. 1986). Such submergence-emer-
gence glacio-eustatic oscillations would produce repetitive
shallowing-upward cycles, given proper conditions
of
sedi-
mentation
and
subsidence. More specifically,
the
earth
experiences three climatic cycles;
(I)
approximately 20,000 year
precessional cycle; (2)approximately 40.000 year obliquity
cycle;
(3)
approximately IOO,OOOyear eccentricity cycle. Each
results from
the
gravitational interaction
of
the Earth with
the
moon
and
other planetary bodies (see Milankoyitch Cycles,
and
Hinnov, 2000). These climatic cycles occur with dilTerent,
yet
somewhat predictable frequencies,
and
cause
the
Earth's
average temperature
in and
around
the
polar regions
to
increase
and
decrease
in a
cyclical manner. Alternate warming
and cooling
of the
polar regions triggers
the
melting
and
growth
of
land-loeked glaciers, which
in
turn modulates
sea-
level change.
To establish
the
existence
of
Milankovitch forcing, some
workers have simply compared calculated cycle periods
or a
range
of
periods wiih Milankovitch values (e.g.. Hcckel.
1986;
Koerschner
and
Read. 1989). Others have noted
the
bundling
of small-scale, lifth-order cycles into larger-scale fourth-order
cycles
and
compared this stratigraphic hierarchy
to the
Milankovitch hierarchy
of
superimposed orders
of
climatic
cyclicity (Goodwin
and
Anderson. 1985; Goldhammer
ctaf.
1987;
Strasser. 1988; Creveilo,
in
Franseen
etaf,
1991).
In
light
of age-date errors,
the
calculation
of
cycle periods
and a
comparison with predicted Milankovitch frequeneies
is
fraught
with hazards (Hardie etai. 1986; Algeo
and
Wilkinson, 1988).
Analysis
of
eyele staeking patterns
and
comparison
of
eyele
bundles with Milankoviteh ratios alone provides ambiguous
results.
Time series analysis provides
the
most reliable means
of
demonstrating Milankoviich frequencies within platform
carbonates (e.g.,
de
Boer
and
Smith.
1991;
Einsele
ct ai,
1991;
Hinnov. 2000). This approach basically scans strati-
graphic data sets
for
cyclic signatures
and
compares
the
extracted frequencies with known Milankovitch frequency
ratios.
However
a
serious problem regarding time series
CYCLIC SEDIMENTATION
181
analyzes of ancient platform cyclic sequences pertains to the
completeness of the cyclic succession. Inherent in traditional
time series analysis is the assumption that the cyclic record is
complete and that each recorded stratigraphic rhythm equates
directly to otie rhythmic pulse of the cyclic-producing
mechanism (e.g.. glacio-eustasy; Duff ct af, 1967. p.l3). In
e.vamining the relationship between cyclic events in time (i.e..
rhythms) and the resulting stratigraphic record, it must be
pointed out that shallow marine shelves (clastie or carbonate)
may depict at best a rather "faulty recording mechanism"
(Scwarzacher, 1975). Despite a regular, rhythmic time pattern
of cyclic-producing events (e.g., Milankovitch-driven glacio-
eustasy). the eorresponding stratigraphic record may not
preserve each and every potential cyclic-producing pulse due
to complexities of sedimentation.
Glacio-eustatic control on cyclicity has received consider-
able attention lor mixed clastic-carbonate cyclothems of the
Mid-continent LISA and Europe, which have been inferred to
result from the waxing and waning of large Gondwanan ice
caps (Wanless and Shepard. 1936; Wheeler and Murray, 1957;
Wanless and Cannon, 1966; Crowell. 1978; Ramsbottom.
1979).
More recently, Heckel (1986, 1989) and Ross and Ross
(1987) have advocated a direct Milankovitch control on the
cycles characteristic of the interior and southwestern regions of
the USA. Original glacial proponents (Wanless and Shepard,
1936) (.lrev\ upon the widespread distribution of cyclothems.
extreme lateral continuity of lithofacies. and the occurrence of
age-equivalent cyclothems on different eontinents to support
their viewpoint.
(2) High-frequency stochastic cycles
The "Milanko\itch revival" is currently under attack largely
due to the difliculties associated with "proving" a eonneetion
between cyclic sections and deterministic astronomical
forcing (Drummond and Wilkinson. I993a,b.c; Satterly,
1996;
Wilkinson etai. 1997). This has opened the door for
evaluating the influence/eontrol of stochastie mechanisms.
Stochastic processes are entirely random and depict disorder
without periodicity. Stochastic phenomena arc unpredictable.
High-frequency eustasy may be in-part or entirely stochastic.
Either the periodicity of high-frequency oscillations, or the
amplitudes, or both, may be forced by stochastic mechanisms.
Likewise, carbonate, clastic and evaporite sedimentation
processes, or the manner whereby such processes act to till
accommodation space may be stochastic. Either way. it is
feasible that high-frequency cycles in the geologic reeord may
be the result of stochastic high-frequency eustasy.
For e.xample in shallow marine carbonate pUuform systems.
an emerging "random" camp has attacked the fundamental
concept of a hierarchical grouping of cyclicity in carbonates as
part of an effort to demonstrate that cycle stacking patterns
are entirely random (Drummond and Wilkinson, 1993a.b.c;
Satterly, 1996; Wilkinson etai, 1997). They maintain that
cycle populations are erratic, bounced about by random
unpredietable factors wiping out whatever deterministic signal
may exist. These authors are thus shifting attention away
from the predictive capacity of cyclic stratigraphy and the
utility of using carbonate cycle stacking patterns as a tool for
evaluating the origin of depositional sequences. This camp
has applied statistieal analyzes to cyclic carbonate succes-
sions and conclude that the vertical arrangement of high-
frequency cycles and subfacies is rimdom. Furthermore, as the
distribution is random, they claim that the process is more
than likely random and appeal to autocyclic phenomena in the
spirit of complex Holocene faeies models. In contrast, Sadler
t'tai
(1993), using similar statistical tests, concluded that the
vertical organization of long strings of high-frequency cycles
are decidedly non-random.
Time series anaKzcs of stratigraphic sections typically do
not reveal resonant periodicity and thus it is tempting to
conclude that stochastic processes dominate the formation of
cyclic carbonates. But reealling that the stratigraphic machine
is at best a faulty recording mechanism, a deterministic driver
may yield a stochastic output via the "stratigraphic filter". The
burden of proof is just as challenging as with deterministic
systems. If empirieal observations of vertical stacking patterns,
and the vertieal/lateral distribution of facies are rendered
entirely unpredictable, then perhaps the system is random and
stochastic stratigraphic models are appropriate. It is this
author's opinion however that there is always some element of
order, and this is both age-dependent reflecting secular
geologic ehanges, and scale-dependenl (e.n.. Lehrmann and
Goldhammer, 1999).
(3) Autocycles
Based on Holocene insight, Ginsburg (1971) t\irmuialed a
progradat ion-driven autocyclic mechanism that readily
accounts for repetitious stacks of meter-scale fifth- and
fourth-order platform carbonate eyeles. This model couples
continuous carbonate sedimentation and progradation of tidal
flat complexes across gently sloping carbonate platforms under
conditions of constant subsidence and stationary sea-level
(e.g.. Hardie and Shinn. 1986). The subtidal earbonate faetory
provides the sediment source which is transported shoreward,
accreting against exposed land masses or islands. The tidal flat
eomplex progrades out and over the subtidal deposits yielding
a shallowing-upward cycle capped by progradational tidal Hat
facies.
The key aspect of the model is that carbonate
production rates will be unable to keep pace with subsidence
as tidal flat progradation diminishes the size of the "subtidai
faetory" and eventually the progradational cycle will halt.
With passive subsidence, a minimum "lag depth" (the depth
required to resume carbonate production) of a meter or two is
achieved initiating carbonate sedimentation, and hence a new
cycle.
Utilizing typical rates of passive margin subsidenee
(1 2()cm/IOO()years) and known Holoeene tidal flat prograda-
tion rates (0.5-20km/lOOOyears). Ginsburg autocycies can
easily prograile across platforms up to 100 km in width within
the Milankovitch time band (Hardie and Shinn, 1986). During
geologic periods when no continental land masses covered the
polar regions, for example the Cambrian and Lower Ordovi-
cian. the intluenee of Milankoviteh-forced glacio-eustasy
would be minimized, and the feasibilty of autoeyeles would
be enhanced.
In clastic systems, autocyclic processes arc well-known. For
example, in Pennsylvanian mixed clastic and carbonate eyeles,
autocyclic influences were suggested by Van der Hcide (1950)
who speculated that compaction of peat layers in clastie
portions of eyclothems in the Netherlands could have induced
sudden marine transgressions contributing to cyclic deposition.
More recently, autocyclic models of deita-lobc shifting have
been applied to Upper Pennsylvanian mixed clastic-carbonate
cyclothems (Galloway and Brown. 1973; Elliot. 1976).
182
CYCLIC: SEDIMENTATION
Recognizing that most ofthe deltaic deposits occur within tlio
regressive portions of cylothems. Heckel (1989) viewed
autocyclic deltu-lobe switching as a subordinate process
operating within an overall eustatic framework. Olher
examples ol" clastic autocylicity include fluvial avulsion in
nonmarinc deposits, channel avulsion in deep marine sub-
marine fan deposits, and so on. Other examples of proposed
aulocyclic control on cyclic sequences includes Boseilini and
Hardie (1973). Matti and McKee (1976), Mossop (1979), and
Wilkinson (1982).
(4) Tectonic cycles
Another viable cycle-producing mechanism is that of teetoni-
eally dictated cycles. Repeated tectonic pulses of down-
dropping and uplift (reversal or "yo-yo" tectonics) could
induce mctcr-scalc cyclicity by alternately submerging and
exposing (subacrially) shallow shell" areas (Hardie and Shinn,
I9S^(S). Hpisodie, meter-scale down-dropping driven by faulting
could also create accommodation space leading to shallowing-
upward cycles (Hardie
etal..
1991), With both models, the
accommodation space required for each cycle would be
controlled by meter-scale pulses that might be somewhat
rhythmic if a threshold stress must be achieved to induce
crustal rupturing (Hardie and Shinn, 1986).
Modern data concerning reversal tectonics is scarce and
information regarding recurrence frequency, amount of
vertical displacement, and the si/e of areas involved is
lacking.
Cisne (1986) has outlined a model of stick-slip faulting
at the edges of carbonate platforms that demands a
I'ault-
bounded shelf-edge. In this model, the platform edge and the
updip area located within a hundred kms of the shelf edge
would experience high-frequency crustal oscillations due to
reversal tectonics (Cisne, 1986). While this model is intriguing.
there is no way of estimating recurrence frequencies and
it necessitates block faulting coincident with a platform
shelf edge.
Presently, there is sufficient data regarding tectonic tbrcing
through step-wise subsidence to render episodic subsidence a
plausible mechanism for the generation of meter-scale
sedimentary cycles and larger sequcnees (Hardie
etui.,
!99I).
For example, modern manifestations of coseismic subsidence
over large areas (equal to or greater than the size of many
carbonate platforms) associated with very large earthquakes
are reported along convergent margins and in intraplate
regions (Plafker. 1965: Atwater. 1987). Although large areas
can be downdropped a few lo several meters, data regarding
recurrence tVequencies is sparse, suggesting only that recur-
rence frequencies span the 10 lOOka band (Hardie
etal..
1991).
Early proponents of tectonically-driveii high-frequency
cyclcity include Stout (1931), who interpreted Mid-Continent
cyclothems in Ohio as records of periodic downdropping ofthe
basin,
inducing transgression, followed by steady sediment
infill
(i.e..
a form of episodic subsidence). Weller's (19,10, 1956)
"diastrophic control theory"" centered upon alternate pulsating
uplift and depression (reversal tectonics) of large eontinental
areas with the magnitude being greatest in the uplands,
declining basinvvard. Periodie episodes of uplift resulted in
termination of marine deposition (inferred to occur at the top
of a cyclothem). erosion and
infiu.\
of clastic (nonmarine)
material.
Quantitative analyzes of cycles
Our understanding oi" cyclic sedimentation has been greatly
advanced through the use of quantitative analyzes and
computer-aided modeling of cycles and sequences. There are
basically two approaches: (1) inverse modeling, whereby stacks
of cyclic strata are analyzed by some statistical method,
rigorous time series or spectral analysis, and graphical
techniques for evaluating long strings of cyclic successions:
(2) forward modeling, which normally emails computer-
assisted simulations of synthetic stratigraphic sections by
user-defined manipulation of the stratigraphic governing
factors such as eustasy (periodicities, amplitudes, curve
shapes), subsidence (rates, curve shape, compaction
corrected,
etc.), and sedimentation (carbonates, elastics and
evaporites, etc.)-
Statistical evaluation of vertical facies sueeessions whieh
define cycles has often been invoked
(e.g..
Merriam, 1964: Duff
etal..
1967: Krumbein and Daccy. 1969: Carr, 1982; Davis.
1986) either to assist in defining eyclcs, or to verify their
inferred existence. More recently. (Drummond and Wilkinson.
I99.'ia.b,c; Satterly. 19%: Wilkinson cr al.. 1997: Lehrmann
and Goldhammer. 1999) have employed statistieal routines,
including runs tests. Durbin-Watson test, and entropy analysis
(Hattori.
1976) to evaluate the long-term order of thick stacks
of cyclic platform carbonates. The point of
such
analyzes is to
somehow quantify the degree of order in vertical successions of
high-frequency cycles. Application of time series and spectral
analysis
(e.g.,
Schwarzacher. 1975: Schawarzacher and
Fischer. 1982: Weedon. 1989; Hinnov and Park. 1998: Bazykin
and Hinnov, 2001) to a succession of cycles enables one to
detect superimposed orders of relative sea-level changes
expressed as a hierarchy of stratigraphic cycles. The main
assumption is that of
equal
periodicity per cycle and essentially
no gaps in the data set.
Perhaps the most popular graphical technique applied to the
analysis of cyclic strata is the method of f^scher (1964), coined
"Fischer Plots"" by Goldhammer vt itl. (1987) and Read and
Goldhammer (1988). These plots graphically portray devia-
tions in a successive string of cycles from the mean thickness
for the string as a whole (Sadler
etal.,
1993). Such plots are
intended as a graphically-appealing manner by which one can
visualize long-term stacking patterns of one-dimcnsional
stacks of cycles, particularly when used in conjunction with
cycle-speeific facies proportions
(e.g.,
Goldhammer
etal..
1993:
Kerans and Tinker, 1997). Several workers have used Fischer
plots to attempt to correlate third-order cyclic sequences from
one part of a basin to another or from one basin to another
(Read and Goldhammer, 1988: Osleger and Read. 1991;
Monlanez and Osleger. 1993).
The development of computer simulation models that
simulate synthetic stratigraphy dramatically evolved from
rather simple one-dimensional models of the early 1980s
(Turcotte and Willeman. 1983: Read
etal..
1986; Goldhammer
ct al.. 1987) to sophisticated two- and three-dimensional
models through the mid-1990s (Dunn, 1991; Franseen
etal..
1991;
Miail, 1997). The essential features of these and many
other simulation programs are similar in as far as they all allow
the user to define a variety of parameters (such as eustasy,
subsidence, etc.) according to a variety of rules
(e.g..
depth-
dependent sedimentation, sedimentation driven by diffusion
gradients, etc.) and generate synthetic (and often very realistic)
output. In this author"s opinion, their value lies not in the
CYCLIC SEDIMENTATION
183
precise simulation of a particular section; rather they are
invaluable as an educational tool whieh ean aid one in
evaluating the effects of certain parameters and the manner in
which thev interact.
Conclusions
Sedimentary cycles have several important implications for
furthering our understanding of the stratigraphic machine,
including; (a) as shallow-marine siliciclastic and carbonate
(and evaporite) sedimentation normally exeeeds background
subsidence, such deposits often aecrete to sea level, and hence
repetitive shoaling sequences
(i.e..
cycles) record in!"ormation
about relative changes in sea level; (b) high-frequency cycles
commonly show remarkable lateral eontinuity and the cycles,
as well as associated unconformities, are normally regarded as
synchronous, not diachronous stratigraphic deposits. Thus
their potential for stratigraphic correlation should not be
overlooked; (c) marine high-frequeney cycles often correspond
lo one relative rise and fall of sea level and cut across
lateral facies changes and thus they are high-resolution tinie-
stratigraphic units; (d) if cycles are indeed rhythmic, then
cycles can be used to calibrate geologic time, provided the cycle
periodicity is known; (c) high-frequency evaporite cycles in
marginal-marine and nonmarinc settings, and lacustrine cycles
record perhaps the clearest record of stratigraphic accumula-
tion driven by ancient climate variations controlled by orbital
foreing (Milankovitch theory of climate).
Robert K. Goldhammor
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