Middleton G.V. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
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Encyclopedia of
Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Volume Editor
Gerard V. Middleton is Professor Emeritus of Geology at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He was
co-author of "Origin of Sedimentary Rocks" (Prentice-Hall), "Mechanics in the Earth and Environmental Sciences"
(Cambridge), and author of "Data Analysis in the Earth Sciences using MATLAB" (Prentice-Hall). He is a Fellow of
the Royal Society of Canada, and in 2003 received the Twenhofel Prize of SEPM, the Society for Sedimentary Geology.
Aim of the Series
The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in
the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading
names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists.
These books represent one of the world's leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are
being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional
earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students.
See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to
www.eseo.com to visit the "Earth Sciences Encyclopedia Online" - the online version of this Encyclopedia Series.
About the Editors
Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge has edited more than 30 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career
he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led
expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He is currently Emeritus
Professor of Geology at Columbia University and is affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
Professor Michael Rampino has published more than 100 papers in professional journals including Science, Nature, and
Scientific American. He has worked in such diverse fields as volcanology, planetary science, sedimentology, and climate
studies, and has done field work on six continents. He is currently Associate Professor of Earth and Environmental
Sciences at New York University and a consultant at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Guide to the Reader
Algal and Bacterial Carbonate Sediments
Roberl Riding
xiii
xxvii
xxix
1
Authigenesis
James R. Boles
Autosuspension
Henry M. Pantin
Avalanche and
Allophane and Imogolite
Roger L. Parfitt
Alluvial Fans
Adrian M. Harvey
Anabranching Rivers
Gerald
C.
Nanson and Martin R. Gihling
Ancient Karst
Brian Jones
Angle of Repose
Paul
D.
Komar
Anhydrite and Gypsum
Lawrence A. Hardie
Ankerite (in Sediments)
James
P.
Hendry
Armor
Rob Ferguson
Atterberg Limits
Michael
J.
Bovis
Michael J. Bovis
3
Avulsion
Norman
D.
Smith
5
Bacteria in Sediments
Nora Nofjfke
Ball-and-Pillow (Pillow) Structure
11 Geraint Owen
Bar, Littoral
15 Brian Greenwood
Barrier Islands
16 Duncan M. FilzGerald and Ilya V Buynevich
Bauxite
19 Ray L.Frost
Beachrock
2'
Eberhard
Gischler
Bedding and Internal Structures
Franco
Ricci-Lucchi and Alessandro Amorosi
11
30
31
34
37
39
40
43
48
51
53
Attrition (Abrasion), Fluvial
Michael Church
24 Bedset and Laminaset
John S. Bridge
59
Attrition (Abrasion), Marine
Hillert Ibbeken
25 Bentonites and Tonsteins
D.
Alan Spears
61
CONTENTS
Berthierine
FredJ.
Longstaffe
64 Clastic (Neptunian) Dykes and Sills
A.
Demoulin
136
Bioclasts
Paul Enos
66 Clathrates
Miriam Kaslner
137
Bioerosion
Markus Bertling
Biogenic Sedimentary Structures
S.
George
Pemberton
Black Shales
Juergen Schieber
Braided Channels
Peter
Ashmore
Calcite Compensation Depth
Sherwood Wise
Caliche - Calcrete
V.Paul
Wright
Carbonate Diagenesis and Microfabrics
Robin
G.
C.
Bathurst
Carbonate Mineralogy and Geochemistry
Fred
T.
Mackenzie
Carbonate Mud-Mounds
Pierre-Andre Bourque
Cathodolumineseence (applied to the study of
sedimentary rocks)
Stuart
D.
Burley
Cation Exchange
Balwant Singh
Cave Sediments
Brian Jones
70
71
83
85
91
93
100
102
106
109
Clay Mineralogy
Stephen Hillier
Climatic Control of Sedimentation
Greg
H.
Mack
Coal Balls
Andrew
C.
Scott
Coastal Sedimentary Faeies
H. Edward Clifton
Colloidal Properties of Sediments
Sandip and Devamita Chattopadhyay
Colors of Sedimentary Rocks
Paul Myrow
Compaction (Consolidation) of Sediments
Knut Bjorlykke
Convolute Lamination
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Coring Methods, Cores
ArnoldH.
Bouma
Cross-Stratification
DavidM.
Rubin
Cyclic Sedimentation
Robert K. Goldhammer
Debris Flow
Jon
J.
Major
139
142
146
149
157
159
161
168
168
170
173
186
Cements and Cementation
Peter A. Scholle and Dana Ulmer-Scholle
110 Dedolomitization
Mario Coniglio
188
Chalk
Ida L. Fabricius
119 Deformation of Sediments
John
D.
Collinson
190
Charcoal in Sediments
Andrew
C.
Scott
121 Deformation Structures and Growth Faults
John
D.
Collinson
193
Chlorite in Sediments
Stephen Hillier
123 Deltas and Estuaries
Janok Bhattacharya
195
Classification of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Gerald
M.
Friedman
127 Depositional Fabric of Mudstones
Juergen Schieber
203
CONTENTS
Desert Sedimentary Environments
Joseph
P.
Smoot
Desiccation Structures (Mud Cracks, etc.)
P.W.
Geoff Tanner
Diagenesis
Kitty L. Milliken
Diagenetic Structures
Peter
Mozley
Diffusion, Chemical
Bernard
P.
Boudreau
Diffusion, Turbulent
Andrew
J.
Hogg
Dish Structure
Zoltan Sylvester and Donald R. Lowe
Dolomite Textures
Duncan Sibley
Dolomites and Dolomitization
Hans
G.
Machel
Dunes, Eolian
Nicholas Lancaster
Earth Flows
Rex L. Baum
Encrinites
William
I.
Ausich
Eolian Transport and Deposition
Cheryl McKenna Neuman
Erosion and Sediment Yield
Robert F Stallard
Evaporites
Lawrence
A.
Hardie and Tim K. Lowenstein
Extraterrestrial Material in Sediments
Christian Koeberl
Fabric, Porosity, and Permeability
Gerard V Middleton
207
212
214
219
225
226
230
231
234
243
247
248
249
254
257
263
265
Features Indicating Impact and Shock Metamorphism 275
WolfUweReimold
Feldspars in Sedimentary Rocks
Sadoon Morad
Flame Structure
Gerard V Middleton
Flaser
Burghard W Flemming
Flocculation
Morten Pejrup
Floodplain Sediments
Andres Asian
Floods and Other Catastrophic Events
Victor R. Baker
Flow Resistance
Robert Millar
Fluid Escape Structures
Zoltan Sylvester and Donald
R.
Lowe
Fluid Inclusions
Robert
H.
Goldstein
Flume
Basil Gomez
Forensic Sedimentology
Raymond
C.
Murray
Gases in Sediments
Chris
J.
Clayton
Geodes
Kitty L. Milliken
Geophysical Properties of Sediments
(Acoustical, Electrical, Radioactive)
Anthony L. Fndres
Geothermic Characteristics of Sediments and
Sedimentary Rocks
Daniel
F.
Merriam
278
281
282
284
285
287
293
294
297
300
301
304
306
308
314
Glacial Sediments: Processes, Environments and Faeies 316
Michael
J.
Hambrey and Neil
F.
Glasser
Faeies Models
Harold
G.
Reading
268 Giaucony and Verdine
Alessandro Amorosi
331
Fan Delta
George
Postma
111 Grading, Graded Bedding
Richard
N.
Hiscott
333
CONTENTS
Grain Flow
Charles
S. Campbell
Grain Settling
Paul
D.
Komar
Grain Size and Shape
Michael
J.
Church
Grain Threshold
Paul
D.
Komar
Gravity-Driven Mass Flows
Richard
M.
Iverson
Gutters and Gutter Casts
Paul Myrow
Heavy Mineral Shadows
Rick Cheel
Heavy Minerals
Andrew
C.
Morton
Hindered Settling
Jon
J.
Major
Humic Substances in Sediments
Laura
J.
Crossey
Hummocky and Swaley Cross-Stratification
Rick Cheel
Hydrocarbons in Sediments
Martin
Fowler
Hydroxides and Oxyhydroxide Minerals
Helge Stanjek
Iliite Group .Clay Minerals
Jan Srodoii
Imbrication and Flow-Oriented Clasts
Cyril Galvin
Impregnation
Scott F Lamoureux
Iron-Manganese Nodules
Stephen
E.
Calvert
Ironstones and Iron Formations
Bruce M. Simonson
Isotopic Methods in Sedimentology
FredJ.
Longstaffe
335
336
338
345
347
353
355
356
358
361
362
364
366
369
371
374
376
379
385
Kaolin Group Minerals 398
Rossman
F.
Giese,
Jr.
Kerogen 400
Raphael
A.J.
Wust and
R.
Marc Bustin
Lacustrine Sedimentation 404
Robert Gilbert
Laterites 408
Yves Tardy
Lepispheres 411
Sherwood
W.
Wise,
Jr.
Liquefaction and Fluidization 412
Charles S. Campbell
Load Structures 413
John R.L.Allen
Lunar Sediments 415
Abhijit Basu
Magadiite 417
Robin
W.
Renaut
Magnetic Properties of Sediments 418
Mark
J.
Dekkers
Mass Movement 424
Michael J. Bovis
Maturation, Organic 425
R.
Marc Bustin and Raphael
A.J.
Wust
Maturity: Textural and Compositional 429
Raymond V
Ingersoll
Meandering Channels 430
Edward J. Hickin
Melange; Melange 434
John WF
Waldron
Micritization 436
Ian
G.
Macintyre and
R.
Pamela Reid
Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures 439
Nora
Noffke
Milankovitch Cycles 441
Linda Hinnov
Mixed Siliciclastic and Carbonate Sedimentation 443
Robert K. Goldhammer
Mixed-Layer Clays 447
Jan Srodoh
CONTENTS
Mixing Models 450
Bernard
P.
Boudreau
Mudrocks 451
Paul
E.
Potter
Neomorphism and Recrystallization 460
JA.D. Dickson
Nepheloid Layer, Sediment 462
/. Nicholas McCave
Neritic Carbonate Depositional Environments 464
Noet
P.
James
Numerical Models and Simulation of Sediment
Transport and Deposition 475
Rudy L. Slingerland
Oceanic Sediments 481
Robert
G.
Douglas
Offshore Sands 492
Serge Berne
Oil Sands 499
Daryl
M.
Wightman
Oolite and Coated Grains 502
Fredrick
D.
Siewers
Ophicalcites 506
Denis Lavoie
Paleocurrent Analysis 509
Andrew
D.
Miall
Parting Lineations and Current Crescents 512
Rick Cheel
Peat 514
Barry
G.
Warner
Petrophysics of Sand and Sandstone 516
Robert Ehrlich
Phosphorites 519
Craig
R. Glenn and Robert
F.
Garrison
Physics of Sediment Transport: The Contributions of
R.A. Bagnold 527
Colin R. Thorne
Pillar Structure 529
Zoltan Sylvester and Donald
R.
Lowe
Placers, Marine
Davids. Cronan
Planar and Parallel Lamination
John S. Bridge
Porewaters in Sediments
Jeffreys. Hanor
Pressure Solution
Francois
Renard and Dag Dysthe
Provenance
Abhijit Basu
Pseudonodules
Geraint Owen
Quartz, Detrital
Harvey Blatt
Red Beds
Peter Turner
Reefs
Wolfgang
Kiessling
Relict and Palimpsest Sediments
Donald JP Swift
Relief Peels
Robert W. Dalrymple
Resin and Amber in Sediments
Ken
B.
Anderson
Ripple, Ripple Mark, Ripple Structure
Jaco
H.
Baas
Rivers and Alluvial Fans
Gerald
C.
Nanson and Martin R. Gibling
Sabkha, Salt Flat, Salina
Lawrence A. Hardie
Salt Marshes
Daniel
F.
Belknap
Sands, Gravels, and their Lithified Equivalents
Andrew
D.
Miall
Sapropel
Stephen
E.
Calvert
Scour, Scour Marks
John R.L.Allen
532
534
537
542
544
549
552
555
557
560
561
563
565
568
584
586
588
592
594
Placers, Fluvial
WK. Fletcher
530 Seawater: Temporal Changes in the Major Solutes
H. Wayne Nesbitt
596
CONTENTS
Sediment Fluxes and Rates of Sedimentation 600
James
P.
M.
Syvitski
Sediment Transport by Tides 606
Robert W. Dalrymple and Kyungsik Choi
Sediment Transport by Unidirectional Water Flows 609
John S. Bridge
Sediment Transport by Waves 619
Brian Greenwood
Sedimentary Geology 626
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Sedimentary Structures as Way-up Indicators 627
Robert
H.
Dott,
Jr.
Sedimentology, History 628
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Sedimentology: History in Japan 635
Hakuyu Okada
Sedimentology—Organizations, Meetings, Publications 637
Gail
M.
Ashley
Sedimentologists:
Ralph Alger Bagnold (1896-1990) 638
Colin R. Thome
Joseph Barrel! (1869-1919) 638
Robert
H.
Dott,
Jr.
Robin G.C. Bathurst (1920-) 639
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Lucien Cayeux (1864-1944) 640
Albert
V.
Carozzi
Carl Wilhelm Correns (1893-1980) 641
Karl Hans
Wedepohl
Robert Louis Folk (1925-) 642
Earle
E.
McBride
Grove Karl Gilbert (1843-1918) 642
Rudy Slingerland
Amadeus William Grabau (1870-1946) 643
Markes
E.
Johnson
Amanz Gressly (1814-1865) 644
Gerard V Middleton
William Christian Krumbein (1902-1979) 644
Daniel
F.
Merriam
Paul Dimitri Krynine (1902-1964) 645
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Philip Henry Kuenen (1902-1976) 646
Gerard
V.
Middleton
John Murray (1841-1914) and the
Challenger Expedition 647
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Francis J. Pettijohn (1904-1999) 648
Paul
E.
Potter
Rudolf Richter (1881-1957) and the
Senckenberg Laboratory 648
S.
George
Pemberton
Henry Clifton Sorby (1826-1908)
Gerard
V.
Middleton
William H. Twenhofel (1875-1957)
Robert
H.
Dott,
Jr.
Johan August Udden (1859-1932)
Earle
E.
McBride
T. Wayland Vaughan (1870-1952)
Ellis L.
Yochelson
Johannes Walther (1860-1937)
Eugen and Use Seibold
Sediments Produced by Impact
Christian Koeberl
Septarian Concretions
Mark
W.
Hounslow
Silcrete
M" Angeles Bustillo
Siliceous Sediments
L.
PaulKnauth
Slide and Slump Structures
OleJ.
Martinsen
Slope Sediments
RichardN.
Hiscott
Slurry
Jon
J.
Major
Smectite Group
Stephen
P.
Altaner
Solution Breccias
Derek
Eord
Speleothems
Derek
Eord
Spiculites and Spongolites
Paul R. Gammon
Stains for Carbonate Minerals
J
A.
D.
Dickson
Statistical Analysis of Sediments and
Sedimentary Rocks
Daniel
E.
Merriam
Storm Deposits
Paul
Myrow
Stromatactis
Pierre-Andre Bourque
Stromatolites
Brian R. Pratt
649
650
651
652
653
653
657
659
660
666
668
674
675
677
678
681
683
684
687
CONTENTS
Stylolites
L.
Bruce Railsback
Submarine Fans and Channels
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Substrate-Controlled Ichnofacies
S.
George
Pemberton
Sulfide Minerals in Sediments
Richard
T.
Wilkin
Surface Forms
John
B.
Southard
Surface Textures
W.
Brian Whalley
Swash and Backwash, Swash Marks
Michael
G.
Hughes
Syneresis
P.W.
Geojf Tanner
Talc
Richard
H.
April
Taphonomy: Sedimentological Implications of
Fossil Preservation
Carlton E. Brett
Tectonic Control of Sedimentation
Greg
H.
Mack
Tidal Flats
Burghard
W.
Elemming
Tidal Inlets and Deltas
Duncan M. EitzGerald and Ilya
V.
Buynevich
Tides and Tidal Rhythmites
Erik P Kvale
Tills and Tillites
John Menzies
690
692
698
701
703
712
717
718
721
723
729
734
737
741
744
Tool Marks
Gerard
V.
Middleton
Toxicity of Sediments
G. Allen Burton,
Jr.
and
Peter
E Landrum
Tracers for Sediment Movement
Marwan A. Hassan
Tufas and Travertines
Martyn
H.
Pedley
Tsunami Deposits
Andrew Moore
Turbidites
Ben
C.
Kneller
Upweliing
Graham Shimmield
Varves
Robert Gilbert
Vermiculite
Prakash
B.
Malla
Weathering, Soils, and Paleosols
Gregory
J.
Retallack
X-ray Radiography
Arnold
H.
Bouma
Zeolites in Sedimentary Rocks
Richard
L.
Hay
Index of Authors Cited
Subject Index
747
748
752
753
755
757
761
764
766
770
777
779
781
805
Contributors
John R.L. Allen
Research Institute for Sedimentology
University of Reading
P.O.
Box 227
Whiteknights, Reading Berkshire RG6 6AB
England, UK
e-mail:
j.r.l.allen@reading.ac.uk
Load Structures
Scour,
Scour Marks
Stephen P. Altaner
Department of Geology, 1301 W. Green St
University of Illinois
Urbana IL 61801
USA
e-mail:
altaner@uiuc.edu
Smectite Group
Alessandro Amorosi
Department di Scienze della Terra
Universita di Bologna
Via Zamboni 67
Bologna 40127
Italy
e-mail:
amorosi@geomin.unibo.it
Bedding and Internal Structures
Glaucony and
Verdine
Ken B. Anderson
Chemistry Division
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne IL 60439
USA
e-mail:
kbanderson@anl.gov
Resin and Amber
in
Sediments
Richard April
Department of Geology
Colgate University
Hamilton NY 13346
USA
e-mail:
Rapril@mail.colgate.edu
Talc
Gail M. Ashley
Department of Geological Sciences
Rutgers University
610 Taylor Road
Piscataway NJ 08854-8066
USA
e-mail:
gmashley@rci.rutgers.edu
Sedimentology - Organizations. Meetings, Publications
Peter Z. Ashmore
Department of Geography
University of Victoria
PO Box 3050, Stn CSC
Victoria BC V8W 3P5
Canada
e-mail:
pashmore@julian.uwo.ca
Braided Channels
Andres Asian
Department of Physical and Env. Sciences
Mesa State College
Grand Junction CO 81501-7682
USA
e-mail:
aaslan@mesastate.edu
Floodplain Sediments
William I. Ausich
Department of Geological Sciences
Ohio State University, 155 S. Oval
Columbus OH 43210-1398
USA
e-mail:
ausich.l@osu.edu
Encrinites
Jaco H. Baas
Department of Earth Sci.
University of Leeds
Leeds LS2 9JT
England, UK
e-mail:
j.baas@earth.leeds.ac.uk
Ripple. Ripple
Mark,
Ripple Structure