Krishnamurti Bhadriraju. The Dravidian Languages
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
11.4
The antiquity of
Proto-Dravidian
and formation
of SD I and II
501
any of the specific innovations attributed to South Dravidian and North Dravidian puts it
as a group by itself. Being surrounded by South Dravidian II languages, either Kolami–
Naiki or Parji–Ollari–Gadaba sometimes share their features spread through borrowing
and diffusion.
The major shared innovations are depicted in figures 11.3 to 11.7 keyed to the num-
bered features listed in the above tables.
11.4 The antiquity of Proto-Dravidian and formation
of South Dravidian I and II
I have not addressed
this problem so far because de
finite archeological and
scriptural
evidence is lacking. In section 1.2.2.9, I maintained that the speakers of the Dravidian
languages were native to India. This meant that they had not entered India from the
northwest during the recent past (second or third millennium), as proposed by some
scholars. But, in view of the theory that modern humans spread out of Africa between
60,000 and 70,000 years ago to all corners of the world (section 1.2.1; Cavalli-Sforza
2000: 92), the Dravidian speakers might have entered India at some very distant past.
On cultural grounds, I have suggested the probability of the Indus civilization being
Proto-Dravidian. If later researches prove this to be correct, we, then, have a tentative
date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium. Even otherwise, a
date closer to that is needed to account for all later developments. We are still not certain
which form of Dravidian the
˚
Rgvedic Aryans came across around 1500 BC. It could be
some ancient form of Dravidian, but certainly not Proto-North Dravidian. While many
Dravidian speakers got assimilated into the Aryan society progressively, the ones who
resisted were slowly pushed toward the periphery of the Indo-Gangetic plain and many
had moved toward east and south even by the end of the second millennium. A reference
in Aitareyabr¯ahma
.
na (7:3:18; ca. seventh century BCE) that the Aryan sage Vi´sw¯amitra
cursed his fifty older, disobedient sons to live as hunter-gatherers with the names
andhra, ´sabara, pu
.
n
.
dra, pulinda and m¯utiba already registers the names of two tribes,
one speaking a Dravidian language, i.e. andhra (Andhra), and the other ´sabara (Savara),
a Munda language. Bharata’s N¯a
.
tya´s¯astra ‘The Science of Dramaturgy’
1
of the fourth
century BCE mentions certain tribal speeches as vibh¯a
.
s¯a as opposed to Sanskrit and
Prakrits. Mention of dramila- ‘(Pre-)Tamil’ and ¯andhra- ‘(Pre-)Telugu’ occur here. We
can, therefore, infer that the split of
South Dravidian I (with Pre-Tamil as the dominant
language) and of South Dravidian II (with Pre-Telugu as the dominant language) could
precede the period of Aitareyabr¯ahma
.
na by at least four or five centuries, i.e. around
1
‘´sak¯ar(a)-¯abh¯ıra-ca
.
n
.
d¯ala-´sabara-dramil(a)-¯andhra-j¯a
.
h| h¯ıne vanecar¯a
.
n¯a
.
m ca vibh¯a
.
s¯an¯a
.
take
sm
˚
rt¯a
.
h’ (17:50). People called ´sak¯ar(a)-, ¯abh¯ıra-, ca
.
n
.
d¯ala-, ´sabara-, dramil(a)-, ¯andhra- and
other inferior forest dwellers speak ‘dialects’ or vibh¯a
.
s¯a which need to be considered in plays.
502 Conc
lusion: a summary
and overview
the eleventh century BCE. Note that it would take a long time for major differences in
phonology and morphology to develop between South Dravidian I and II (see F4, 10,
13–15, 18, 25, 28, 35, 36). We notice that the split of the other major branches could
have been somewhat before or after this point in prehistory.
The split of Pre-Tamil from the rest (presumably Tu
.
lu–Koraga, Kanna
.
da) could be
placed around the sixth century BCE; the other descendants branched off from Pre-Tamil
before the palatalization rule occurred (section 4.5.1.4) in Early Tamil (ca. third century
BCE); all literary texts were composed in Tamil after that period. On linguistic grounds,
then, between the sixth and the third century BCE, successive splits of Pre-Tamil had
occurred, first Toda–Kota, Ko
.
dagu (perhaps Ku
rumba), then Iru
.
la, all prehistoric; the
split of Malay¯a
.
lam has come about
during the historic period, i.e.
ninth to thirteenth
century CE. We notice shared innovations in Toda–Ko
.
dagu–Ku
rumba–Irula (F6) and in
Tamil–Malay¯a
.
lam and this cluster (F18, 20).
There is no knowing when South Dravidian II split off into the present languages, but
we notice smaller clusters of one or two members (Gondi, Ko
.
n
.
da, Kui–Kuvi, Pengo–
Man
.
da) which I would posit between the fifth and thirteenth century CE. The North
Dravidian branch must have split from Proto-Dravidian when one column of Dravidian
speakers moved toward the south crossing the Vindhya mountains in the post-
˚
Rgvedic
period, i.e. thirteenth to tenth century BCE. Central Dravidian then broke off, around
between the tenth and eighth century BCE. These dates are tentative based on relative
chronology and not on lexicostatistics.
11.5 Desiderata
A comprehensive bibliography of linguistic publications is now available for both com-
parative Dravidian and the major literary languages, thanks to the efforts of the renowned
librarian L. S. Ramaiah (1994–2001). The decipherment of the Indus seals would throw
light on whether this civilization had any relationship to Proto-Dravidian, but this branch
of knowledge is still in the hazy zone of speculation. Efforts should be made to discover
new languages in central India covering the Da
.
n
.
dak¯ara
.
nya area, the mountainous ter-
rain connecting Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. A more systematic study
and analysis of Gondi dialects is a desideratum. A Man
.
da grammar, with texts and a
lexicon, said to be under preparation for over fifteen years, is urgently needed. Modern
descriptions of the dialects of Kui, Kuvi, Malto,
Ku
.
rux and Brahui with texts are called
for. Our study of the comparative morphology and syntax of Dravidian is still in its
infancy. Much work needs to be done on comparative syntax. More specific studies are
called for to determine the place of Tu
.
lu, Koraga, Ku
rumba (several dialects) and Iru
.
la
in relation to each other and also in relation to the major languages of South Dravidian I.
The monumental DEDR needs to be revised every twenty years, and the next revision
11.5
Desiderata
503
should be around 2004. It is now possible to add reconstruction of root morphemes under
each entry. Since not much is known of the Munda languages, the areas of convergence
between Dravidian and Munda need exploration. Any new information on the genetic
relationship of Dravidian with language families outside South Asia should be welcome.
It is hoped that this humble effort will inspire young scholars to take up unsolved issues
in comparative and historical Dravidian for further research.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aalto, Pentti. 1971. The alleged affinity of Dravidian and Finno-Ugrian. In Asher (ed.), 1: 262–6.
Abbi, Anvita. 1992. Reduplication in South Asian Languages: an Areal, Typological and
Historical Study. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Limited.
Agesthialingom, S. 1979. A Grammar of Old Tamil, with Special Reference to Pati
rruppattu.
Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
1980a. Auxiliaries and main verbs. In Agesthialingom and Srinvasa Varma (eds.), 1–32.
1980b. First person markers from Old to Middle Tamil. In Vaidyanathan (ed.), 1: 68–104.
Agesthialingom, S. and Kumaraswami Raja, N. (eds.). 1969. Dravidian Linguistics (Seminar
Papers). Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
Agesthialingom, S. and Kushalappa Gowda, K. (eds.). 1976. Dravidian Case System.
Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
Agesthialingom, S. and Sakthivel, S. (eds.). 1973. A Bibliography of Dravidian Linguistics.
Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
Agesthialingom, S. and Shanmugam, S.V. (eds.). 1972. Proceedings of the Seminar on Dravidian
Linguistics III. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
Agesthialingom, S. and Srinvasa Varma, G. (eds.). 1980. Auxiliaries in Dravidian (Seminar
Papers). Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
Agesthialingom, S. and Subrahmanyam, P. S. (eds.). 1976. Dravidian Linguistics V.
Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
Aikhenvald, A. Y. 1996. Gender and noun class. In C. Lehmann (ed.), Handbuch der Morfologie.
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter (forthcoming).
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y., Dixon, R. M. W. and Onishi, Masayoshi (eds.). 2001. Non-Canonical
Marking of Subjects and Objects. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.
Aitareyabr¯ahma
.
nam. 1987. Varanasi: Choukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan.
Ananda Vasudevan, C. P. 1973. Dravidian-Greek connections. IJDL 2: 180–6.
Ananthanarayana, H. S. 1970. Prakrits and Dravidian languages. Proceedings of the Seminar on
Prakrit Studies, 65–75. Baroda.
Anavaratvinayakam Pillai, S. 1923. Dravidian Studies III: The Sanskritic Element in the
Vocabularies of the Dravidian Languages. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press.
Andres, Susie. 1978. A Description of Muria Gondi Phonology and Morphology. PhD
Dissertation, Department of Linguistics, Deccan College, Poona.
Andrewskutty, A. P. 1975. Pronouns and reflexives in Malay¯a
.
lam. IJDL 4.1: 44–82.
Andronov, M. S. 1961. New evidence of possible linguistic ties between the Deccan and the
Urals. Dr. R.P. Sethu Pillai Silver Jubilee Commemoration Volume, 137–40. Madras.
1963. Dravidian languages. AO 31: 177–97.
1964a. Materials for a bibliography of Dravidian linguistics. TC 11: 3–50.
Biblio
graphy
505
1964b. On the typological similarity of New Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. IL 25: 119–25.
1964c. Lexicostatistic analysis of the chronology of disintegration of Proto-Dravidian. IIJ 8:
170–86.
1965. The Tamil Language. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House.
1969. A Standard Grammar of Modern and Classical Tamil. Madras: New Century Book
House Pvt. Ltd.
1970. Dravidian Languages. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House.
1971. Comparative studies on the nature of Dravido-Uralian parallels (A peep into the
pre-history of language families). In Asher (ed.), 1: 267–77.
1972a. Notes on Brahui. JTS 1.1: 1–6.
1972b. Notes on the nature and origin of the adjective in Tamil. In Agesthialingom and
Shanmugam (eds.), 167–78.
1975a. Dravidian pronouns: a comparative study. JTS 7: 14–18, 8: 18–32.
1975b. Observations on accent in Tamil. In Schiffman and Eastman (eds.), 3–10.
1976a. Case suffixes in Dravidian: a comparative study. Anthropos 71.5–6: 726–37.
1976b. Dravidian numerals: an etymological study. IJDL 5.1: 5–15.
1976c. The negative in Dravidian: a comparative study. JTS 10: 1–12.
1977a. Pronominal suffixes in Dravidian: a comparative study. IJDL 6.1: 97–114.
1977b. Hypercorrection in Dravidian. IL 38.4: 221–6.
1978. Sravnitelnaya grammatika Dravidiskikh yazykov (A Comparative Grammar of the
Dravidian Languages). Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies, Academy of Sciences,
USSR.
1979. Verbals in Dravidian: a comparative study. IJDL 8: 52–70.
1980. The Brahui Language. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House.
Annamalai, E. 1968. Onomatopoetic resistance to sound change in Dravidian. In Krishnamurti
(ed.), 15–19.
Annamalai, E. and Steever, S. B. 1998. Modern Tamil. In Steever (ed.), 100–28.
Annapurnamma, R. 1980. Auxiliary verbs in Old and Modern Telugu. In Agesthialingom and
Srinvasa Varma (eds.), 387–414.
Apparao, P. S. R. 1959. N¯a
.
tya´s¯astramu. (Original Sanskrit translated into Telugu.) Secunderabad:
Andhra Pradesh N¯a
.
tyasanghamu.
Arden, A. H. 1934. A Progressive Grammar of Common Tamil, 4th edn revised by A. C. Clayton,
with an appendix on Tamil phonetics by J. R. Firth. Madras: Christian Literature Society.
1976. A Progressive Grammar of the Tamil Language (5th printing). Madras: Christian
Literature Society.
Asher, Ronald E. (ed.). 1971. Proceedings of the Second International Conference-Seminar of
Tamil Studies, vol. 1. Madras: International Association of Tamil Research.
1982. Tamil (Lingua Descriptive Studies 7). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
1985. Tamil (Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars). London: Croom Helm. [Repr. of Asher
1982.]
Asher, Ronald E. and Kumari, T. C. 1997. Malayalam. London and New York: Routledge.
Austerlitz, R. 1971. Long-range comparisons of Tamil and Dravidian with other language
families in Eurasia. In Asher (ed.), 1: 254–61.
Balakrishnan, R. 1976. Phonology of Kodagu with Vocabulary. Annamalainagar: Annamalai
University.
1977. A Grammar of Kodagu. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
1980. Auxiliary verbs in Kodagu. In Agesthialingom and Srinvasa Varma (eds.), 519–24.
Banerjee, Muralydhar. 1931. De´s¯ın¯amam ¯al¯a of Hemchandra, Part I: Text with Readings,
Introduction and Index of Words. Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
Basham, A. L. 1979. Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia. In Deshpande and Hook (eds.), 1–9.
506 Biblio
graphy
Beames, John. 1966. A Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India: Hindi,
Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bengali. (Originally published 1872–79.)
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Bhaskararao, P. 1980. Ko
.
nekor Gadaba: a Dravidian Language. Poona: Deccan College
Postgraduate and Research Institute.
Bhat, D. N. S. 1967. Descriptive Analysis of Tu
.
lu. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and
Research Institute.
1971. The Koraga Language. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute.
1978. Pronominalization. Poona: Deccan College.
1994. The Adjectival Category. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing
Company.
1998. Tu
.
lu. In Steever (ed.), 158–77.
Bhat, M. M. 1951. A study of cases in Dravidian languages. Proceedings and Transactions of the
All India Oriental Conference: Thirteenth Session, 173–6. Nagpur: Nagpur University.
Bhattacharya, S. 1957. Ollari, a Dravidian Speech. New Delhi: Department of Anthropology
(Memoir No. 3), Government of India.
1961. Naiki of Chanda. IIJ 5: 85–117.
1975. Linguistic convergence in the Dravido-Munda culture areas, IJDL 4.2: 199–214.
Bloch, Jules. 1919. The intervocalic consonants in Tamil (translated from French with additions
by J. D. Anderson). IA 48: 191–5.
1930. Some problems of Indo-Aryan philology: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. BSO(A)S 5:
719–56.
1934. L’Indo-Aryen du veda aux temps modernes, 321–31. Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve.
1935. La forme negative du verbe dravidien. BSL 36: 155–62.
1946. Structure grammaticale des langues dravidiennes. Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve.
1954. The Grammatical Structure of Dravidian Languages (translated by R. G. Harshe into
English from French). Poona: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute.
Bomhard, Allan R. and Kerns, John C. 1994. The Nostratic Macrofamily: a Study in Distant
Linguistic Relationship (Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs 74). Berlin and
New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bouda, K. 1953. Dravidisch und Uralaltaisch. Ural-Altaische Jahrb¨ucher (Wiesbaden) 25:
161–73.
1956. Dravidian and Uralaltaic. Lingua 5: 129–44.
Bray, Denys De S. 1909. The Brahui Language, Part 1. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government
Printing, India.
1934. The Brahui Language. Part II: The Brahui Problem. Part III: Etymological Vocabulary.
Delhi: Manager of Publications.
Breton, Roland J-L. 1997. Atlas of the Languages and Ethnic Communities of South Asia. Walnut
Creek, London, New Delhi: Alta Mira.
Brigel, J. 1872. A Grammar of the Tu
.
lu Language. Mangalore: B¨asel Mission Press and Tract
Depository.
Bright, W. 1966. Dravidian metaphony. Language 42: 311–22.
1975. The Dravidian enunciative vowel. In Schiffman and Eastman (eds.), 11–46. [Revised in
Bright 1990: 86 –117.]
1990. Language Variation in South Asia. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(ed.) 1992. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. New York, Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
1996. Kanna
.
da and Telugu writing systems. In Daniels and Bright (eds.), 413–19.
1998. The Dravidian scripts. In Steever (ed.), 40–71.
Britto, Francis. 1986. Diglossia: a Study of the Theory with Application to Tamil. Washington,
DC: Georgetown University Press.
Biblio
graphy
507
Brown, Charles Philip. 1852. A Dictionary, Telugu and English. Madras. 1905. 2nd edn. Revised
and enlarged by M. Venkata Ratnam, W. H. Campbell and K. Veeresalingam. Madras:
Christian Literature Society. [1966. 1st edn reprinted by A. P. Sahitya Akademi,
Hyderabad.]
Burnell, A. C. 1968 (enlarged and improved reissue of 1st edn of 1878). Elements of South Indian
Palaeography ( from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D. being An Introduction to
the Study of South-Indian Inscriptions and Mss). Varanasi, Delhi: Indological Book House.
Burrow, T. 1938. Dravidian studies I: Initial voiced stops. BSOS 9: 711–22.
1940. Dravidian studies II: Notes on the interchange of shortoewithiuinSouth Dravidian.
BSOS 10: 289–97.
1943. Dravidian studies III: The developments of initial k- in Dravidian. BSOAS 11.1: 122–39.
1944. Dravidian studies IV: The body in Dravidian and Uralian. BSOAS 11.2: 328–56.
1945. Some Dravidian words in Sanskrit. TPS 79–10.
1946a. Dravidian studies V: Initial y- and ˜n- in Dravidian. BSOAS 11.3: 595–616.
1946b. Loan words in Sanskrit. TPS 1–30.
1947. Dravidian studies VI: The loss of initial c/s in South Dravidian. BSOAS 12.1: 132–47.
1948. Dravidian studies VII: Further Dravidian words in Sanskrit. BSOAS 12.2: 365–96.
1955. The Sanskrit Language. London: Faber and Faber.
1960. Sanskrit and the Pre-Aryan tribes and languages. Indo-Asian Culture 8: 333–56.
1968a. The treatment of primitive Dravidian
..
r in Ku
.
rux and Malto. In Krishnamurti (ed.),
62–9.
1968b. Collected Papers on Dravidian Linguistics. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
1971. Spontaneous cerebrals in Sanskrit. BSOAS 34: 538–59.
1972. A reconstruction of Fortunatov’s law. BSOAS 35.3: 531–45.
1976. A sketch of Man
.
da grammar in comparison with Pengo. In Agesthialingom and
Subrahmanyam (eds.), 39–56.
1983. Notes on some Dravidian words in Sanskrit. IJDL 12.1: 8–14.
Burrow, T. and Bhattacharya, S. 1953. The Parji Language. Hertford.
1960. A vocabulary of the Gondi dialects. Journal of the Asiatic Society 2: 73–251.
1961. Some notes on the Kui dialect as spoken by the Ku
.
t
.
tia Kandhs of north-east Koraput. IIJ
5: 118–35.
1963. Notes on Kuvi with a short vocabulary. IIJ 6: 231–89.
1970. The Pengo Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Burrow, T. and Emeneau, M. B. 1961. A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary [DED]. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
1968. A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary – Supplement [DEDS]. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
1972. Dravidian etymological notes [DEN]. JAOS 92: 397– 418, 475–91.
1984 (2nd edn). A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary [DEDR]. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Butt, Miriam, King, Tracy Holloway, and Ramchand, Gillian (eds.). 1994. Theoretical
Perspectives on Word Order in South Asian Languages. Stanford: Center for the Study of
Language and Information.
Caldwell, Robert. 1956/61 (1856 1st edn, 1875 2nd edn, 1913 3rd edn revised and edited by J. L.
Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai; reprinted). A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or
South-Indian Family of Languages. Madras: University of Madras.
Campbell, Lyle. 1998. Nostratic: a personal assessment. In Salmons and Joseph (eds.), 107–52.
1999. Nostratic and linguistic palaeontology in methodological perspective. In Renfrew and
Nettle (eds.), 179–230.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. 2000. Genes, Peoples and Languages (translated by Mark Seielstad). New
York: North Point Press.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P. and Piazza, A. 1994. The History and Geography of Human
Genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
508 Biblio
graphy
Census of India 1991. 1997. Series 1-India, Paper 1 of 1997 Language: India and States
(Table C-7). New Delhi: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India.
Chatterji, S. K. 1926. The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language. 3 volumes. Calcutta:
University Press. [Repr. 1970. London: George Allen and Unwin.]
1957. Indian philology. TC 6: 195–225.
Chidambaranatha Chettiar, A. 1945. The Dravidian neuter and plural. IL 9: 1–6.
Cole, R. A. 1867. An Elementary Grammar of the Coorg Language. Bangalore: Wesleyan Press.
Collins, Mark (ed.). 1974 (repr). On the octaval system of reckoning in India. In Dravidic Studies
IV, 169–211. Madras: University of Madras.
Comrie, Bernard. 1995a (repr. 1998). Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1995b. Focus in Malay¯a
.
lam. Journal of the Asian and African Studies, nos. 48, 49: 577–603.
1998. Aspect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corbett, Greville. 1991. Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1963. Indian Palaeography. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Daniels, Peter and Bright, William O. (eds.). 1996. The World’s Writing Systems. London: Oxford
University Press.
Das, Sisir Kumar. 1973. Structure of Malto. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
David, Anne. 1999. A Comparative Study of Dravidian Infinitives. PhD Dissertation, Department
of Linguistics, Chicago University.
Dawson, James. 1870. Gondi words and phrases. JASB 39: 108ff., 172ff.
Deshpande, Madhav M. 1979a. Genesis of Rgvedic retroflexion: a historical and sociolinguistic
investigation. In Deshpande and Hook (eds.), 235–315.
1979b. Sociolinguistic Attitudes in India: an Historical Reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma
Publishers, Inc.
Deshpande, Madhav M. and Hook, Peter Edwin (eds.). 1979. Aryan and Non-Aryan in India. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies.
Diffloth, G. 1968. The Iru
.
la Language: a Close Relative of Tamil. PhD dissertation, University of
California at Los Angeles. [Xerox copy, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
1976.]
Dixon, R. M. W. (ed.). 1987. Studies in Ergativity. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
1982. Where Have all the Adjectives Gone? and Other Essays in Semantics and Syntax. Berlin:
Mouton Publishers.
Dixon, R. M. W. and Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (eds.). 2000. Changing Valency: Case Studies in
Transitivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dolgopolsky, Aaron B. 1986. A probabilistic hypothesis concerning the oldest relationships
among the language families of Northern Eurasia. In Shevoroshkin et al. (eds.), 27–50.
1998. The Nostratic Macrofamily and Linguistic Paleontology. (With an introduction by Colin
Renfrew.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
Driberg, J. G. and Harrison, H. J. 1849. Narrative of Second Visit to the Gonds of the Nerbudda
Territory with a Grammar and Vocabulary of their Language. Calcutta.
Droese, Ernest. 1884. Introduction to the Malto Language. Agra: Secundra Orphanage Press.
Ebert, Karen. 1996. Ko
.
dava. Munich and Newcastle: Lincom Europa.
Ekka, Francis. 1972. Remarks on the treatment of PDr
∗
o: in Ku
.
rux and Malto. IJDL
1.2: 19–28.
Elfenbein, J. 1982. Notes on Balochi-Brahui linguistic commensality. TPS 77–98.
1983a. The Brahui problem again. IIJ 25: 103–32.
1983b. A Brahui supplementary vocabulary. IIJ 25: 191–209.
1987. A periplus of the ‘Brahui problem’. Indo-Iranica (fascicule 2). 215–33.
1997. Brahui phonology. In Alan Kaye (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, 797–811. Winona
Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.
1998. Brahui. In Steever (ed.), 388–414.
Biblio
graphy
509
Ellis, Francis Whyte. 1816. Note to the Introduction of A. D. Campbell’s A Grammar of the
Teloogoo Language, 154–5. Madras [Repr. with an editorial note by N. Venkata Rao in
Annals of Oriental Research of the University of Madras 12: 1–35. Madras: University of
Madras.]
Emeneau, M. B. 1938. Echowords in Toda. New Indian Antiquary 1: 109–17. [Repr. in Emeneau
1967b: 37–45.]
1944–6. Kota Texts (in 4 volumes). UCPL 2. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press.
1945. The Dravidian verbs ‘come’ and ‘give’. Language 21: 184–213.
1953a. The Dravidian kinship terms. Language 29: 339–53.
1954. Linguistic pre-history of India. PAPS 98: 282–92. [Repr. 1956. TC 5: 30–55 and in
Emeneau 1980b: 105–25.]
1955a. India and linguistics. JAOS 75: 145–53.
1955b. Kolami, a Dravidian Language. UCPL 12. Berkeley: University of California Press.
[Repr. 1961 by Annamalai University, Annamalainagar.]
1956. India as a linguistic area. Language 32: 3–16.
1957a. Numerals in comparative linguistics (with special reference to Dravidian). Bulletin of
the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica (Taipei). 29: 1–10.
1957b. Toda, a Dravidian language. TPS 15–66.
1961a. Brahui demonstrative pronouns. Journal of the Asiatic Society 3.1–5. [Repr. in
Emeneau 1994: 17–22.]
1961b. North Dravidian velar stops. In Te. Po. M¯ı.Ma
.
nivi
.
z¯a Malar (Studies Presented to
Professor T. P. Meenakshisundaran), 371–88. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994: 1–15]
1962a. Bilingualism and structural borrowing. PAPS 106: 430–42.
1962b. Dravidian and Indian linguistics. Berkeley: Center for South Asian Studies, UC
(Mimeographed).
1962c. New Brahui etymologies. In Indological Studies in Honor of W. Norman Brown
(American Oriental Series 47), 59–69. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994: 23–34.]
1962d. Brahui and Dravidian Comparative Grammar. UCPL 27. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
1964. Linguistic desiderata in Baluchistan. in Indo-Iranica (M´elanges pr´esent´es `a George
Morgenstierne `a l’occasion de son soixante-dixi`eme anniversaire), 73–7. Wiesbaden: Otto
Harrasowitz.
1965. India and Historical Grammar. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
1966 (pub. 1968). Some South Dravidian noun formatives. IL 27: 21–30. [Repr. in Emeneau
1994: 163–70.]
1967a. The South Dravidian languages. JAOS 87: 365–413.
1967b. Dravidian Linguistics, Ethnology and Folktales: Collected Papers. Annamalainagar:
Annamalai University.
1969a. Onomatopoetics in the Indian linguistic area. Language 45: 274–99.
1969b. Kota vowel shift. JTS 1: 21–34. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994: 175–82.]
1970a. Dravidian Comparative Phonology: a Sketch. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
1970b. Ko
.
dagu vowels. JAOS 90: 145–58. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994: 183–201.]
1971a. Dravidian and Indo-Aryan: the Indian linguistic area. In Sjoberg (ed.), 33–68.
1971b. Ko
.
dagu and Brahui developments of Proto-Dravidian -
..
r-. IIJ 13.3: 176–98. [Repr. in
Emeneau 1994: 203–22.]
1973. Review of Kamil V. Zvelebil, Comparative Dravidian Phonology (1970). Linguistics
107: 77–82.
1974a. Review of Martin Pfeiffer, Elements of Ku
.
rux Historical Phonology (1972). Language
50: 755–8.
1974b. The Indian linguistic area revisited. IJDL 3.1: 92–134.
510 Biblio
graphy
1975. Studies in Dravidian verb stem formation. JAOS 95: 1–24. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994:
223–63.]
1978. Towards an onomastics of South Asia. JAOS 98: 113–30.
1979. Toda vowels in non-initial syllables. BSOAS 42: 225–34. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994:
275–86.]
1980a. Indian demonstrative bases: a revision. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the
Berkeley Linguistic Society, 20–7. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994: 307–15.]
1980b. Language and Linguistic Area (Selected and Introduced by Anwar S. Dil). Stanford:
Stanford University Press.
1980c. Brahui laterals from Proto-Dravidian
∗
..
r. JAOS 100: 311–12. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994:
303–6.]
1980d. Brahui laterals from Proto-Dravidian. In Bhakti P. Mallik (ed.), Suniti Kumar Chatterji
Commemoration Volume, 101–5. Burdwan: University of Burdwan.
1980e. Sanskrit bh¯ogin- ‘wealth’ → ‘village headman; fisherman, palanquin bearer’. In K. Klar,
M. Langdon and S. Silver (eds.), American and Indo-European Studies: Papers in Honor of
Madison S. Beeler, 315–25. The Hague: Mouton.
1983. Demonstrative pronominal bases in the Indian linguistic area. IJDL 12.1: 1–7.
1984. Toda Grammar and Texts. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
1987a. Some notes on Dravidian intensives. In George Cardona and Norman H. Zide (eds.),
Festschrift for Henry Hoenigswald: on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, 109–13. T¨ubingen:
Gunter Narr Verlag. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994: 323–7.]
1987b. The right hand is the ‘eating hand’: an Indian areal linguistic inquiry. In Dimensions in
Social Life: Essays in Honor of David Mandelbaum, 263–73. [Repr. in Emeneau 1994:
329–34.]
1988. Proto-Dravidian c and its developments. JAOS 108: 239–68.
1989. The languages of the Nilgiris. In Hockings (ed.), 133–42.
1991. Brahui personal pronouns: 1st singular and reflexive. In Lakshmi Bai and Ramakrishna
Reddy (eds.), 1–12.
1992. Foreword to Hockings and Pilot-Raichoor (eds.), vii–x.
1994. Dravidian Studies: Selected Papers. Delhi: Motilal Banarsi Dass.
1995. The palatalizing rule in Tamil-Malay¯a
.
lam and Telugu. JAOS 115.3: 401–9.
1997a. Brahui etymologies and phonetic developments: new items. BSOAS
60.3: 440 –7.
1997b. Linguistics and botany in the Nilgiris. In Hockings (ed.), 74–105.
2000. Some Dravidian noun compounds. (MS.).
Emeneau, M. B. and Burrow, T. 1962. Dravidian Borrowings from Indo-Aryan. UCPL 26.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Emeneau, M. B. and Hart, Kausalya. 1993. Tamil expressives with initial voiced stops. BSOAS
56: 75–86.
Erdosy, George (ed.). 1995. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture
and Ethnicity. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Fairservis, Walter A. Jr. 1983. The script of the Indus Valley civilization. Scientific American
248.3: 44–52.
1986. The Harappan civilization according to its writing: a model for the decipherment of the
script. Tamil Civilization 4: 103–80.
1992. The Harappan Civilization and its Writing. New York: E. J. Brill.
Ferguson, Charles A. 1964. Diglossia. In Dell Hymes (ed.), Language, Education and Society,
429–39. New York: Harper and Row.
Firth, J. R. 1934 (4th edn). Appendix to A. H. Arden. A Progressive Grammar of Common Tamil.
Madras: Christian Literature Society.