Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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independentEuropeisgoodforthebalanceoftheworld.FortheUStoplayaheavy‐handed

rolewouldbecounter‐productive.WhatwewantisfriendlycompetitionwiththeUnited

States.



WilsongenerouslytoldtheNSCmeetingthatitwas “fascinatingasaform

ofgovernmentalprocess.”Thiswaseithera tokenofWilson’spersonalaffection

forthingsAmerican,orelseclassicBritishunderstatement.“Fascinating”was

surelytheleastonecouldsayforaprocedurethatbroughtforthalternativesno

onewouldconsiderandthataftermonthsofstudypointedtothecourse—British

membershipinanincreasinglyintegratedEurope—whichwasalreadybeing

carriedout.Inafewmonthsitbegantoappearthatmatterswerenotquiteso

simple.The“enhancedEurope”haditspoliticalpromise,butitwasalsoevidently

capableoffierceeconomiccompetitionwithus,producingtensionsnotforeseen

bythegranddesignsoftheSixties. ButbythenHaroldWilsonwasoutofoffice.In

Junehecalledanelectionthatheconfidentlyexpectedtowin—anopinionshared

alsobyallourkeyofficialssaveNixon,whosepredictionofaHeathvictorynever

waveredandwhoneverlethisassociatesforgethisprescientforecast.



Therelationshipwithournextvisitor,FrenchPresidentGeorgesPompidou,

provedmorecomplex.HewastheheiroftheGaullisttradition, havingservedas

deGaulle’sPrimeMinisterfornearlyadecade.DeGaullehaddismissedhimafter

thestudentriotsof1968.HaddeGaullenotresignedinthespringof1969,

PompidouwouldalmostsurelyhaveslippedtotheperipheryofFrenchpolitics.

HerarelyreferredtodeGaulle,butwhenhedidthedeepinjuryshowedthrough.

Irecallnooccasionwhenhementionedthepositivequalitiesofhispredecessor

butseveralwhenhespokeofhisaloofnessanddestructivesuspiciousness.And

yetPompidouclearlywasaPresidentindeGaulle’sstyle;hepracticedhisown

aloofness.Hisbearingwasregal,inkeepingwiththeelectivemonarchywith

whichtheconstitutionoftheFifthFrenchRepublichadendoweditsPresident,

whoischosenforatermofsevenyears(renewable).Hewasacutelyconsciousof

theprerogativesofhisoffice,seeinginthem,withsomejustice,thesymbolof

France’sregainedunity,self‐confidence,andinfluence.



Pompidouwasamanofextraordinaryintelligence,dignity,andcharacter.

Waryeyespeeringoutbehindbushyeyebrowsbetrayedtheskepticismofa son

oftheAuvergne,thathardyregionwhereFrenchpeasantshavesurvivedastormy

historybynottrustingexcessivelyintheunselfishnessoftheirneighbors.Hewas

supremelyeducated,oneofthefewstatesmenwithwhomitwasapleasureto

discusssubjectsoutsideofpolitics.Hehadtheskeptic’sabilitytogettotheheart

ofthematter,andtheFrenchintellectual’stendencyto endowissueswithan

intricacymorereflectiveofhisownsophisticationthanofthecrudercriteria

employedbylesscomplexpersonalities.Andhehadasardonicsenseofhumor.



InregardtotheUnitedStates,considerationsofnationalinterestwerein

ambivalentconflictwiththeprejudicesoftheFrenchintellectual.Heunderstood

thattocontinuetheconfrontationsofthedeGaulleperiodwasboundtoleadto

theisolationofFrance;challengingtheUnitedStateswasausefuldevicefor

assertingFrenchnationalidentityonlysolongastheUnitedStatesconfinedits

displeasuretowords.InanultimatetestFrance’srelativeweaknesswasboundto

bedemonstrated.ForcedtochoosebetweenFranceandtheUnitedStates,most

Europeannations—andespeciallytheFederalRepublicofGermany—wouldhave

toabandontheirFrenchconnection.Pompidouthereforewasdeterminedto

followthepath,alreadyinitiatedintheconversationsbetweenNixonandde

Gaulle,ofendingthehostilitybetweenthetwocountries.LikedeGaullehe

insistedondoingsoonabilateralbasis;hedistrustedmultilateralorganizations

ordecisionsasdissolvingFrenchidentity.



Atthesametime,PompidouhadtheinnatesuspicionofmanyFrenchmen

thatintheendnothinggoodcouldcomefromtheUnitedStates.Exceptfor

untypicalrepresentatives—likeNixonand,atthemargin,myself—Pompidou

reallyhadlittleconfidencethatAmericansunderstoodinternationalaffairs,notto

speakofmorearcanesubjectslikepoliticalphilosophy.Hewasnotalittle

apprehensivethatourcharacteristiccombinationofgoodwill,greatpower,and

energymightcausetheUnitedStatestodestroymorefragilestructuressuchas

theEuropeanCommunityorriskEurope’ssecuritybyexcessesofeitherhostility

orconciliationwithMoscow.Likemostofhiscompatriotshedidnotdoubtthat

wecouldbenefitfromFrenchinstructioninsubtlety.Hesoughttobuild

counterweightstoourpresumedimpetuosity,evenwhilecooperatingtoan

unprecedenteddegreeincommondesigns.



Withallhisdoubtsandinnatesuspicions,relationswithFranceimproved

dramaticallyunderPompidou.HeseemedtolikeNixonforhisgraspof

internationalaffairsandalsoforhismanythoughtfulgesturestowardFrance.The

latterincludedNixon’sattendanceatthedinnerinPo mpidou’shonorinNewYork

aftertherehadbeenhostiledemonstrationsinChicago(whichIwilldescribe)

and,later,hisflyingtoParisforthememorialservicefordeGaulleinNotreDame.

(Nixonwas,infact,thefirstheadofstatetoannouncehisattendance,thereby

forcingahostofotherstofollowsuit.)Inreturn,asIwilllaterdescribe,Pompidou

wasextraordinarilyhelpfulinarrangingmysecretcontactswiththeNorth

Vietnamese,goingsofarastomakehisownjetavailableformytravelwithin

France.IbriefedhimregularlyonmytalkswiththeNorthVietnamese—moreso

thanIdidmostofourownseniorofficials.Hemaintainedcompletediscretionand

neverusedthesekindnesses toexactanykindofreturn.



RelationswerenodoubteasedbecausePompidou’swasthefirst“normal”

PresidencyoftheFifthRepublic,inthesensethathehadcometoofficeby

electionandnotthroughincipientcivilwar.HewasthefirstPresidentwhocould

conductasystematicforeignpolicyaddressedtoproblemsotherthan

overcomingcolonialwarsorseekingtoestablishFrance’sautonomy.Inthe

processitbecameapparentthatdeGaullehadbuiltbetterthanhisAmerican

detractorshadbeenwillingtoadmit.HisviewthatFrancecouldplayaneffective

internationalroleonlyifitpursuedinterestsitperceivedasitsownprovedtobe

correct.ThepropositionthatanindependentFrancewouldprovebeneficialto

theWestwasridiculedwhenitwasputforward;itturnedouttobetrue.Under

Pompidouandlaterhisdistinguishedandablesuccessor,ValeryGiscardd’Estaing,

Frenchforeignpolicywasoftenprickly,butitwasseriousandconsistent.Inits

fundamentalsitwascompatiblewithourpurposes,evenwhenitstacticswere

occasionallygrating.Attimesitwassteadierandmoreperceptivethanourown

(suchasinAfricainthelate1970s).



Initsinsistenceonconductingaglobalpolicybyitsownlights,Francestood

ingrowingcontrasttootherEuropeanallies,includingevenGreatBritain.Britain

stillpossessedtheexperienceandintellectualresourcesofagreatpowerandwas

governedbyleadersofvastgoodwilltowardtheUnitedStates.Butwithevery

passingyeartheyactedlessasiftheirdecisionsmattered.Theyofferedadvice,

usuallysage;theyrarelysoughttoembodyitinapolicyoftheirown.British

statesmenwerecontenttoactashonoredconsultantstoourdeliberations.And

Brandtinhismemoirspridedhimselfonthefactthathiscountryhadpurgeditself

ofanyaspirationstoaglobalrole.

OftheNATOallies,therefore,onlyFrance

aspiredtoaglobalpolicyandtriedtoassemblethemeanstocarryitout.And,

quitecontrarytowhathadbeenpredictedintheSixties,astheyearswenton

France’sindependentpolicyprovedofsignificanthelpinfar‐flungareas.Thiswas

especiallytrueinAfrica,whereitwasneverseducedbythesentimentalillusion

thatthecontinentcouldbeinsulatedfromthephysicalandideologicalrealitiesof

thecontemporaryworldthroughthestrenuousexerciseofgoodwill.



Tobesure,FrenchhistoryandaCartesianeducationalsystemoccasionally

producedconvolutedtheoriesofthemotivationsofothers,especiallyAmericans,

thatattimescausedFrenchpolicytoseekreassuranceagainstmirages.But

Frenchleadersbenefitedfromatraditionthatsawnoneedtoapologizefor

considerationsofnationalinterest.Theircountryhadlostmostwhenitengaged

inideologicalcrusadesorreliedtoomuchonothers;itflourishedwhenit

understoodtheimperativesofthebalanceofpower.TheFrenchPresidentand

Nixonwereonthesamewavelengthwhentheyreviewedinternationalaffairs.



PompidouusedtheoccasionofmyfirstsecretmeetingwithLeDucThoin

February1970toinvitemetolunchathischarmingapartmentintheIleSt.Louis,

theancientheartofParis,withinsightofNotre‐Dame.Hewasclearlynervous

aboutwhatwouldbehisfirstvisittotheUnitedStatesasPresidentofFrance.

TherehadbeenreportsofplannedprotestsagainsttheFrenchsale ofadvanced

airplanestoLibya.Hewasillateaseabouthiscomingencounterswithour

notoriouspress.Isoughttoreassurehimonbothcounts.(Intheevent,Icould

havesavedmybreathaboutthemedia;hehandledthepresswithnat ural

aplomb.Theprotesterswereanothermatter;theyproducedafiasco.) We

discussedtheagendaofhisimminentmeetingwithNixon.Iemphasizedthatwe

wouldnotembarrasshim.Wewouldfocusonpracticalcooperationratherthan

onthetheorybywhichitmightbejustified.ItoldhimthatNixonplannedto

attendadinnerattheFrenchEmbassy,thefirstsuchinvitationhehadaccepted

sinceenteringtheWhiteHouse.Pompidoustressedthathewaspreparedto

discussallsubjectsofcommoninterestsolongashewassparedtheliturgyof

NATOintegration.WhilehewouldnotreversedeGaulle’spolicyofnational

defense,hefavoredpracticalcooperationinthemilitaryfield.



Nixonneedednourgingtoconcentrateonthepracticalitiesofcooperation;

itreflectedhisownbent.AthisfirstmeetingwithPompidouheelaboratedonhis

favoritethemeofthebalanceofpower:itwasintheAmericaninteresttoseean

economicallystrongEurope,aswellasJapan.Pompidouwentstraighttothe

heartofhisconcern,whichturnedouttobeOstpolitik.Likeallhiscollea gueshe

claimedthathetrustedBrandtbutfeared thatBrandt’spoliciesmightunleash

nationalistictendenc iesthatwouldproveimpossibletocontain.Thestreakof

impatienceintheGermancharactermadehimuneasy. Defeatsintwoworldwars

hadnotbeenconclusivebecausethecombinedmightoftherestoftheworldhad

beenneededtoaccomplishthem.Germannationalismmightbreakforthagain

and,ifthroughcalamityithadlearnedpatience,itmightproveevenmore

dangerous.Itwasfearofa resurgentGermany,Pompidouaverred,thathad

causedhimtoreversedeGaulle’soppositiontoBritain’sentryintoEurope.Thus

Pompidou’sargumentswereinfactnotsodifferentfromWilson’stwoweeks

earlier;everybodywantedBritainintheCommonMarkettohelprestrain

Germany.PompidouevenwentsofarastoruminateonaLondon‐Parisaxisasa

counterweighttouncontrolledGermannationalism.EvenBrandtfavoredBritain’s

entry,ifobviouslyforadifferentreason.Hesoughttoanswerthosecriticswho

chargedhimwithaone‐sidedleaningtowardtheEast;itwasthereasonforhis

seminalspeechinTheHagueinearlyDecember,urgingBritishentryintothe

CommonMarket.Inshort,Brandt’sopeningtotheEasthadtheunintended

consequenceofspurringWestEuropeanintegration.Ofthethreemostimportant 

Europeanleaders,twodistrustedthetendenciesunleashedbythethird, andthe

thirdneededagesturebywhichtoassuagethesesuspicions.Britishentryintothe

CommonMarketprovidedthemechanism.



PompidoufollowedtheGaullistapproachtotheSovietUnion.While

profoundlydistrustingSovietpurposesandfearfulofgrowingSovietstrength,he

advocatedapolicyofrelaxationoftensions.TheSoviets,accordingtoPompidou,

werehauntedbyChinaandneededquietintheWest.Theirdesireforrelaxation

oftensions,therefore,wasbasednotonsentimentbutoneconomic,political,

andmilitarynecessity.Theyalsowantedeconomicsupport,especiallyforEastern

Europe.TheywouldbetemptedtoobtainitfromGermany.GermanyasaSoviet

partnerwastoodangerous,however,bothfortheSovietUnionandfortheWest.

ThisiswhyFrancewasdeterminednottoletGermanygetaheadofitindétente

policy(therebysettingupunintentionallythepreconditionsofaracetoMoscow).

ClosercontactsbetweentheWestandRussiawerealsodesirableintheirown

right,accordingtoPompidou;ultimatelytheywouldweakenMoscowby

encouragingthemoreliberalandreform‐mindedelementsinSovietsociety.

PompidoudidnotexplainwhytheKremlinwouldembraceapolicythatbyhis

analysiswouldleadtothetransformationofitssystem.Perhapshemeantto

implythatthepoliciesofcompetingcountries—especiallysuperpowers—often

involvecompetinga ssessmentsofthefuture,andhewasbettingonus.Probably,

PompidouwasaboveallconcernedwiththelegacyofRichelieu.Preventinga

resurgentGermanyonFrance’sbordershadahigherpriorityforhimthanfearof

amoredistantRussia,whichinthefinalanalysishadtobehandledbyus.



ThevisitofPompidouachievedallthatwaspossible,giventheabsenceof

concreteissuesrequiringsolution.Thetalkswerecordialandthetwoleadershad

similarperceptionsofEuropeanandAlliancequestionsifnotofdétente.Practical

arrangementsweremadeforintimateconsultationbyestablishingadirect

communications“hotline”anddesignatingPompidou’saide,MichelJobert,and

measthecontacts.Thetwoleadersagreedtobeginbilateralmilitarydiscussions

atthestafflevel.TheonlysournoteoccurredinChicago,wherePompidouand

hiswifewerepummeledbydemonstratorsprotestingthesaleofFrenchplanesto

Libya.Pompidounearlycanceledtheremainderofhistrip.Hewasdissuadedonly

withdifficultyandbecauseNixonannouncedthathewouldattendthedinnerfor

PompidouinNewYork.



Historyissometimesmadeofsmallpieces.Theincidentreinforced

Pompidou’sinherentambivalencetowardtheUnitedStates.Heremained

intellectuallycommittedtocloserelations,butemotionallyheneverceased

consideringtheincidentaninsulttoFranceandagravediscourtesytohiswife.In

theagonyofhislastyear(whenhewasdyingofcancer)thisemotionalbiaswas

toreinforcewhateversubstantivedisagreementshehadovertheYearofEurope

andlentpassiontodisputesthatwerethengivenaddedsharpnessbyJobert,by

thentransformedfromastaffassistanttoForeignMinisterandfromself‐effacing

aidetotheoratoricalterrorofallieddiplomacy.



WillyBrandtvisitedWashingtoninApril1970.Asanunusualsignofrespect

NixonhadgivenBrandt thePresidentiallodge(“Aspen”)atCampDavidforafew

daysofrestbeforethebeginningofformaltalks.Ashadbecomethecustom

beforeimportantPresidentialconversations,ImetwithBrandtoverlunchat

CampDavidtogivehima previewofthePresident’sapproachandtosoundhim

outabouthisownideas. 



BrandtgreetedmewearingtheNavyjacketwithhisnameandthe

Presidentialseal,whichwasgivenroutinelytogueststhere.Hehadbeenvery

flatteredbytheinvitationtoCampDavid(usuallyclosedtoforeignvisitors)and

thehospitalityofthePresidentiallodge.Hesoughttoaffectgreatconfidenceand

bonhomie.Butitwasclearthathewasworriedaboutourreactiontohis

Ostpolitik.



Ireassuredhim.Therewouldbenoattempttochangehisbasiccourse.We

wouldnotencourageanyparticularnegotiatingstrategy.Norwouldwecomment

onspecifictermsofhisnegotiation. Forthishewouldhavetotakeresponsibility;

wewouldnotparticipateintheGermandomesticdebate,oneitherside.We

wouldsupportBrandt’sobjectives,staysilentonhismethods,urgeclose

consultationwithhisallies,warnagainstraisingexcessiveexpectations.Andwe

wouldgivehimasenseofpartnership,whichwasthebestassura nceagainstthe

latentdangersofapurelynationalpolicy.Brandtwasgreatlyrelieved.



ThemeetingbetweenBrandtandNixonwassurprisinglycordial,giventhe

factthatneithermanwouldhavesoughtouttheother’scompanyhadnotfate

thrusttheleadershipofgreatnationsuponthem.Nixonhadgenuinedoubts

aboutthosehesawaspersonalitiesoftheleft,andBrandt’shabitoflongsilences

madehimnervous.Nixonmadesomeamendsforhisgaffeofelectionnightbya

gracefuldinnertoastpledgingtoplaceallhistelephonecallshenceforththrough

theWhiteHouseoperators,sincewhenhehaddialedthecallhimselfonthenight

oftheGermanelectionitwastothewrongnumber.Moreimportant,Brandtleft

Washingtonwithapublicendorsementofhisoverallpolicy.



InhismemoirsBrandtwritesthatNixon andImissedthepointofoneofhis

moresignificantcomments.ItwastotheeffectthattheSovietproposalfora

EuropeanSecurityConferencerepresented“anovellinkwithEuropewhich

neitherderivedfromlegalrightsacquiredinthelast warnorreposedsolelyon

theNorthAtlanticPact.“

Hewaswrong.Wegotthepoint.Weweresimply not

persuadedbytheargumentandwethoughtitmoretactfulnottopursueit.The

“novel”featureoftheEuropeanSecurityConferencewasSovietparticipationin

itsdeliberations.Wewerewilling enoughtonegotiatewiththeSovietsabout

outstandingissues;theimplicationthatSovietapprovalwasneededtolegitim ize

ourroleinEurope weconsidereddangerous.ForusaEuropeanSecurity

Conferencehadtobejustifiedonquite differentgrounds. 



Strangely,VietnamplayedaminorroleinthevisitsofEuropeanleade rs.

Europeanpublicopinion,atleastasrepresentedbythemedia,opposedthewar. 

ButEuropeanleadersregisterednoobjection.Duringtheentireperiodofthewar

IrecallnocriticismbyaEuropeanleaderineventhemostprivateconversation.

Theyseemedparalyzedbythesamedilemmathatwefaced.Theywantedthewar

endedquicklybecausetheytracedsomeofthepoliticalunrestintheirown

countriestocontagionfromAmericanuniversitiesandintellectualcirclesand

becausetheyfearedthatovertimetheconflictmightsapourcapacitytodeal

withthreatstotheirownsecurity.ButtheyalsowantedAmerica’scredibility

unimpaired.BrandtandWilsonvolunteerednocommentandmadesympathetic

noiseswhenNixonoutlinedourVietnamstrategy.Pompidoustressedthataslong

asAmericademonstrateditsdesiretoliquidatethewar—whichinhisviewwe

weredoing—hewouldnotsecond‐guessourtactics.Heknewhowarduousand

time‐consumingtheprocessofdisengagementhadbeenforFranceinAlgeria.

WhenEdwardHeathbecameBritishPrimeMinister,hearguedvigorouslythatan

AmericanwithdrawalfromVietnamunderconditionsinterpretedasacollapseof

theAmericanwillmightunleashanewroundofSovietaggressioninEurope.Itis

impossibletodeterminewhethertheseviewsweresincerelyheldorwerethe

tactfulresponsesofleadersunabletoaffectspecificdecisionsandunwillingto

jeopardizetheirrelationswiththeirprincipalally.Anditdoesnotmakemuch

difference.Hiddenmotivesmaybethestuffofmemoirs.Theactualexpressionof

viewsiswhatinfluencespolicy.



ThevisitstoWashingtonofthethreeEuropeanleadersthusrevealedthat

traditionalpatternsofEuropeanpoliticswerebeginningto reassertthemselves.

TheBritishhadtoldNixontheymightresumetheirhistoricalroleofbalancingthe 

continentalpowers.TheFrenc hwerespeakingoftheneedtokeepopentheline

toMoscowsoastowatchGerman‐Sovietrelations.BoththeGermansandthe

French,inthewakeoftheirtalksinWashingto n,wereclearlymovingtoward

Britain,eachfortheirownessentiallynationalreasons.Theresultwasa

consensus,howeverdifferentthemotives,onBritain’sentryintotheCommon

Market.ButwithBritain’sentryintotheCommonMarketimminentwewere

broughtfacetofaceforthefirsttimewiththefullimplicationsofwhatwehad

wrought.



<<Contents>>



****



SecondThoughtsabouttheCommonMarket



sanenlargedEuropeanCommunitymovedfromtheorytoreality,itbecame

clearthatthemoresentimentaltheoriesofearlierdecadeshadpaintedtoo

simpleapicture.AneconomicallystrongEuropewouldbemoreself‐reliant;but

alsoapricewouldhavetobepaidforit.Asthecustomsunion,whichwasthe

Community’smosttangiblemanifestation,begantoaffectAmericanexports,and

Europecametocompetewithusinotherareasoftheworld,ourbusiness

communitybecamerestlessanditsrumblingssoonaffectedgovernmental

decisions.ForthefirsttimeAtlanticrelat ionsbecamecontroversial.Inthespring

of1970IorderedaformalinteragencyconsiderationofAtlanticrelations.



Bythefallof1970fearsabouttheeffectsofanexpandedEuropean

Community,especiallyinoureconomic agencies,hadbecomeveryvocal.The

departmentsoftheTreasury,Commerce,andAgriculture,followingthetriedand

truepatternofthePentagon,hadconstructeda“worstcase”analysisofthe

consequencesoftheenlargementoftheCommonMarkettoincludeBritainand

(itwasthenthought)Norway.[

TheNorwegianvotersturneddownmembershipinthe

EuropeanCommunitybyareferendumofSeptember26,1972.]Ineffecttheysawitasan

economicmonsterdominatingworldtradeandmonetaryarrangements,

excludingAmericanagriculturalproductsandmanufacturedgoods,andgradually

spreadingitseconomictentaclesintotheThirdWorld.Thislastapprehensionhad

beenarousedbythepreferentialarrangementsbywhichtheCommonMarket

nationsgrantedandreceivedspecialandexclusivetradingrelationshipsfrom

theirMediterraneanneighborsandforme rcolonies.IfallofBritain’sformer

coloniesnowjoinedthisnetworkofexclusivetradingarrangements,these

dangerswouldbemagnified.OnestudypreparedfortheNSCnoted:



Inthelongrunwecouldbeconfrontedbyan“expandedEurope”comprisingaCommon

Marketofatleasttenfullmembers,associatedmembershipsfortheEFTA[EuropeanFree

TradeArea]neutrals,andpreferentialtradearrangementswithatleasttheMediterraneanand

mostofAfrica.Thisblocwillaccountforabouthalfofworldtrade,comparedwithour15%;it

willholdmonetaryreservesapproachingtwiceourown;anditwillevenbeabletooutvoteus

constantlyintheinternationaleconomicorganizations.



Theireoftheeconomic agencieswasinflamedbyapassageinthe

President’sForeignPolicyReportofFebruary1970,which,inthereadingofthose

whohadnotparticipatedinthedrafting,amountedtoacarteblanchefor

Europeaneconomicnationalism:



OursupportforthestrengtheningandbroadeningoftheEuropeanCommunityhasnot

diminished.WerecognizethatourinterestswillnecessarilybeaffectedbyEurope’sevolution,

andwemayhavetomakesacrificesinthecommoninterest.Weconsiderthatthepossible

economicpriceofatrulyunifiedEuropeisoutweighedbythegaininthepoliticalvitalityofthe

Westasawhole.



Treasuryandotheragenciesthoughtthatthispassageencouraged

Europeaneconomicpressureagainstus.Itwouldhavebeenarashgovernment

thatbasedpoliciessolikelytostimulateAmericanretaliationonanisolatedand

ambiguoussentence.Butthepassageprovidedausefulfocusforaninteragency

debate.Whattheeconomicagencieswanted,andseriouslyproposedatan

interagencymeetingofMay13,wasanofficial“reinterpretation”ofthe

President’sreport—ineffect,adeclarationofwaronthesystemofpreferences

andperhapsevenontheconceptoftheEuropeanCommunity.Theeconomic

agenciesinsistedthatweusetheforthcomingnegotiationsforBritishentryinto

theCommunitytoconductthebattle.



TheStateDepartment(notthatitfeltanoverwhelmingobligationto

defendthereportdraftedbymeandmystaff)neverthelesswashorrifiedbythis

assaultonwhathadbeenoneofthepermanentfeaturesofAmericanforeign

policy.ExpansionandfurtherintegrationoftheEuropeanCommunityhadbeen

pursuedbyus,especiallyintheSixties,sometimeswithmorefervorthanbythe

Europeansthemselves.Europeanpolicyhadbeentheunchallengedpreserveof

theEuropeanBureauoftheStateDepartment;itruledoutanyalternativefor

BritainotherthanentryintoEurope.Nowthatthisprojectwassocloseto

culmination,achallengewasbeingthrowndownnotbyadomineering

Frenchmanbutfromtheleastexpectedquarter—withintheUnitedStates

government—threateningnotonlyitssubstantivebutitsbureaucratic

preeminence.TheEuropeanBureauresistedwithtime‐honoredtacticsof

procrastinationandobfuscation.Hourswerespentdebatingwhetheran

interagencypaperonBritishentryshouldsaythatEuropeanintegration“would”

orthatit“could”poseproblems.Statefoughtvaliantlyagainstany

comprehensiveassessmentofthenegativeeconomicconsequencesofthe

enlargedCommunity.ItfearedthatAmericanoppositionwouldprovideahandy

scapegoatifforanyreasonthenegotiationsonBritishentrybrokedown.But

whiletheStateDepartmentwascorrectintheabstract,itoverlookedthepolitical

realities,especiallyinaCongressionalelectionyear.Itranitscongenitalriskof