Kissinger Henry. White House Years

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

InpreparingforNixon’sAsiantripinthesummerof1969NixonandIhad

discussedthisproblemoften.Wehadconcludedthatitwasimportanttomakea

distinctionbetweenthreetypesofsecuritydangers:internalsubversion,external

attackbyaneighboringAsiancountry, andaggressionbyanuclearpower(in

practicalterms,theSovietUnionorthePeople’sRepublicofChina).Atthe

highestlevelofthreat,wehadtomakeexplicitourunchangedoppositiontothe

aggressivedesignsof anymajorpowerinAsia.Atthelow endofthespectrum,we

hadtoavoidbeinginvolvedincivilwars.Forthegrayareainbetween,nosimple

formulawouldsuffice.TheoriginalintentionhadbeentodevelopaPresidential

speechalongthatlinesometimeduringthesummer.InaWhiteHouse

backgrounderonJuly18IhadsketchedtheAdministration’sphilosophyforpost‐

VietnamAsia:



TheissueofthenatureofcommitmentsintheUnitedStatesoftentakestheformofa

discussionoflegalobligations.Butonadeeperlevel,andonthelevelthathastoconcernthe

President,therelationshipoftheUnitedStatestoothercountriesdependsinpart,ofcourse,

onthelegalrelationshipsbutmorefundamentallyontheconceptiontheUnitedStateshasof

itsroleintheworldandontheintrinsicsignificanceofthecountriesinrelationshiptooverall

securityandoverallprogress.



Whatwedowanttodiscussis,asIpointedout,howthesecountriesvisualizetheirown

futurebecause,asonelooksaheadtothenextdecade,itisself‐evidentthatthefutureofAsia,

SouthEastAsia,whichwewillbevisiting,willhavetodependnotonprescriptionsmadein

Washington,butonthedynamismandcreativityandcooperationoftheregion.



Weremainwillingtoparticipate,butwecannotsupplyalltheconceptionsandallthe

resources.Theinitiativehastomoveincreasinglyintothatregion.Forthatreason,itis

importantthatweconsiderourviewsoftheirfuture.



Then,quitetomysurprise,NixontookupthethemeinwhatIexpectedto

beaninformalbackgroundchatwiththepressonJuly25inanofficers’clubon

Guam.WewereonourwaytothePhilippines.Itwasattheendofalongday.We

hadbeentravelingforseveralhoursacrossseveraltimezonesviaJohnstonIsland

towitnessthesplashdownofthefirstmentolandonthemoon.Thismoved

Nixontoremarkthatwehadwitnessedthe“greatestweekinthehistoryofthe

worldsincetheCreation”—astatementthatlefttheclergymaninthegroup

somewhatnonplussed.TothisdayIdonotthink thatNixonintendedamajor

policypronouncementinGuam;hisoriginalpurposehadbeentomak esome 

newsbecauseoftheemptyperiodproducedbythecrossingoftheinternational

dateline.ThataformalpronouncementwasnotatfirstonNixon’smindis

indicatedbythefactthathisremarksweremadeonbackground.

But,perhaps

carriedawaybytheoccasion,Nixon,inaneffectiveandofteneloquent

statement,spelledouthisconcernsandapproachtowardAsia.



NixonsawpotentialmilitarydangersinAsiafromamajorcountry,

CommunistChina,andtworelativelyminorones,NorthKoreaandNorth

Vietnam.ButNixonsaidthatwe“mustavoidthatkindofpolicythatwillmake

countriesinAsiasodependentonusthatwearedraggedintoconflictssuchas

theonethatwehaveinVietnam.”Inevitablythecorrespondentspressedhimfor 

specifics.Nixonreplied:



IbelievethatthetimehascomewhentheUnitedStates,inourrelationswithallofour

Asianfriends,[should]bequiteemphaticontwopoints:One,thatwewillkeepourtreaty

commitments,forexample,withThailandunderSEATO;but,two,thatasfarastheproblemsof

internalsecurityareconcerned,asfarastheproblemsofmilitarydefense,exceptforthethreat

ofamajorpowerinvolvingnuclearweapons,thattheUnitedStatesisgoingtoencourageand

hasarighttoexpectthatthisproblemwillbeincreasinglyhandledby,andtheresponsibilityfor

ittakenby,theAsiannationsthemselves.



Thisstillleftopenthequestionofwhatto doaboutaggressionthatcame

neitherfromanuclearpowernorfrominternalsubversion.Nixonsuggestedthat

thismightbedealtwithbyanAsiancollectivesecuritysysteminfivetotenyears’

time:“Insofarasitdealswithathreatotherthanthatposedbyanuclearpower…

thisisanobjectivewhichfreeAsiannations,independentAsiannations,canseek

andwhichtheUnitedStatesshouldsupport.”Heavoidedafollow‐upquestionas

towhatwewoulddointheinterveningperiodbeforesuchasecuritysystem

cameintobeing.



Nixonmademore newsthanhebargainedfor.Thesecommentsfrom

widelyseparatedpartsofaninformalbriefingwereasensation,dominatinghis

conversationseverywherehewentinAsia.Surprisedatfirstbytheirimpact,

Nixonsoonelevatedthemtoa doctrinebearinghisname—i nfact,aconsiderable

amountofhistimewasspentmakingsurethattheinitiallabel“GuamDoctrine”

wasrapidlysupplantedinthejournalisticlexiconbyamoreimpressivephrase

commemoratingthepersonratherthantheplace.Nixoneventuallyelaborated

hisinformalremarksintothreekeypointsinhisVietnamspeechofNovember3,

1969,andinhisForeignPolicyReportofFebruary18,1970:



‐TheUnitedStateswillkeepallitstreatycommitments.



‐Weshallprovideashieldifanuclearpowerthreatensthefreedomofanationallied

withus,orofanationwhosesurvivalweconsidervitaltooursecurityandthesecurityofthe

regionasawhole.



‐Incasesinvolvingothertypesofaggressionweshallfurnishmilitaryandeconomic

assistancewhenrequestedandasappropriate.Butweshalllooktothenationdirectly

threatenedtoassumetheprimaryresponsibilityofprovidingthemanpowerforitsdefense.



OnoneleveltherewaslesstotheNixonDoctrinethanmettheeye.Ifwe

werepreparedtosta ndbyourtreatycommitments,thiscoveredJapan,South

Korea,thePhilippines,Taiwan,Thailand,andSouthVietnam.Ifwenowpledged

toprotectevennonalignedcountriesagainstnuclearpowers,thistookcareofthe

concernofcountrieslikeIndonesia,India, orMalaysiaabouthypotheticalattacks

fromChina.WhattheNixonDoctrineexcludedwasautomaticAmerican

participationinwarsbetweenotherAsianpowers,thoughwemightoffermilitary

andeconomicassistance.Thatweshouldnolongerinvolveourselvesincivilwars

was—in1969—theconventionalwisdom.



Ontheotherhand,aformalstatementoftheAmericanpositionprovided

forthefirsttimeclear‐cutcriteriaforfriendandfoe.Domestically,itsupplieda

coherentanswertothechargesofoverextension;eventhoseadvocatingamore

far‐reachingretrenchmenthadtotakeseriouslythesweepandimplicationsof

Nixon’sdeclaration.AndnationsinAsiadreadingAmericanwithdrawalfoundin

theGuampronouncement sconsiderablereassuranceoncetheyhadunderstood

them.



Oneironicconsequencewasthatthoseinourgovernmentandoutsidewho

wantedanevenmoresignificantretrenchmentbegantoinvoketheNixon

Doctrineagainstitsauthor.Itwasamusing—andmaddening—duringthe

discussionsonCambodia,forexample,tohearthatAmericanassistancewas

barredbyadoctrinebearingthenameofthemaneagertoassistathreatened

countryandwhorecognizednosuchincompatibility.



****



Thus,inthemidstofanintensedomesticdebateoverdefense,wewere

abletopreserveabasefromwhichtobuildlaterastheCo ngressionalandpublic

moodchanged.Wedevelopedamilitarystrategythatfitourcapacitiesfor

dealingwiththemoreplausible dangers.Andweadvancedadoctrineforthe

securityofthePacific areathatgavenewassurancetoouralliesandfriends.Ofall

theachievementsofNixon’sfirstterm,Iconsiderthepreservationofthesinews

ofourmilitarystrengthamongthemostsignificant.Withoutitalleffortsat

relaxingtensionswouldhavefailed.Formoderationisavirtueonlyinthosewho

arethoughttohaveachoice.



<<Contents>>



****



VIII



TheAgonyofVietnam



cannotyetwriteaboutVietnamexceptwithpainandsadness.Whenwecame

intoofficeoverahalf‐millionAmericanswerefightinga wartenthousand

milesaway.Theirnumberswerestillincreasingonascheduleestablishedby

ourpredecessors.Wefoundnoplansforwithdrawals.Thirty‐onethousandhad

alreadydied.Whateverouroriginalwaraims,by1969ourcredibilityabroad,the

reliabilityofourcommitments,andourdomesticcohesionwerealikejeopardized

byastruggleinacountryasfarawayfromtheNorthAmericancontinentasour

globepermits.Ourinvolvementhadbegunopenly,andwithnearlyunanimous

Congressional,public,andmediaapproval.

Butby1969ourcountryhadbeen

rivenbyprotestandanguish,sometimestakingonaviolentanduglycharacter.

Thecomitybywhichademocraticsocietymustlive hadbrokendown.No

governmentcanfunctionwithoutaminimumoftrust.Thiswasbeingdissipated

undertheharshnessofouralternativesandtheincreasingrageofourdomestic

controversy.



Psychologistsorsociologistsmayexplainsomedaywhatitisaboutthat

distantmonochromaticland,ofgreenmountainsandfieldsmergingwithanazure

sea,thatformillenniahasactedasamagnetforforeignerswhosoughtglory

thereandfoundfrustration,whobelievedthatinitsricefie ldsandjunglessome

principlewastobeestablishedandenteredthemonlytorecedeindisillusion.

Whathasinspireditspeopletosuchflightsofheroismandmonomaniathata

successionofoutsidershavelookedthereforakeytosomeriddleandthenbeen

expelledbyaferociouspersistencethatnotonlythwartedtheforeigner’s

exertionsbuthazardedhisowninternalbalance?



Ourpredecessorshadenteredininnocence,convincedthatthecruelcivil

warrepresentedthecuttingedgeofsomeglobaldesign.Infouryearsofstruggle

theyhadbeenunabletodevelopastrategytoachievevictory—andforallone

canknownowsuchastrategywasnotattainable.Theyhaddoneenoughto

produceamajorcommitmentofAmericanpowerandcredibilitybutnotenough

tobringittoaconclusion.InthelastyearoftheJohnsonAdministrationthe

Communistshadlaunchedamassivecountrywideoffensive.Fewstudentsofthe

subjectquestiontodaythatitwasmassivelydefeated.Butitsscaleandsacrifice

turneditintoapsychologicalvictory.UndertheimpactoftheTetoffensivewe

firstcurtailedandthenendedourbombingoftheNorthfornoreturnexceptthe

openingofnegotiationswhichourimplacableadversaryimmediatelystalemated.

Publicsupportwasebbingforawarwewouldnotwinbutalsoseemedunableto

end.



Andinourcountry,oppositiongrew.Itwascomposedofmanystrands:

sincerepacifistswhohatedtoseetheircountryinvolvedinkillingthousandsof

milesaway;pragmatistswhocoulddiscernnoplausibleoutcome;isolationists

whowishedtoendAmericanoverseasinvolvement;idealistswhosawno

compatibilitybetweenourvaluesandthehorrorsofawarliterallybroughthome

forthefirsttimeontelevision.Andthesegroupswereeggedonbyasmall

minorityexpressingtheinchoaterageofthe1960swithshocktacticsofobscenity

andviolence,expressingtheirhatredofAmerica,its“system”andits“evil.”All

thesegroupshadcombinedtoproducethebitterchaosoftheDemocratic

Conventionof1968,thecampusviolence,andtheconfusionanddemoralization

oftheleadershipgroupsthathadsustainedthegreatAmericanpostwar

initiativesinforeignpolicy.



RichardNixoninheritedthiscauldron.Ofallchoices hewasprobablythe

leastsuitedfortheactofgracethatmighthaveachievedreconciliationwiththe

responsiblemembersoftheopposition.Seeinghimselfinanycasethetargetofa

liberalconspiracytodestroyhim,hecouldneverbringhimselftoregardthe

upheavalcausedbytheVietnamwarasanythingotherthanacontinuationofthe

long‐livedassaultonhispoliticalexistence.Thoughhesympathizedmorewiththe

anguishofthegenuinepro testersthantheyknew,henevermusteredtheself‐

confidenceorthelargenessofspirittoreachouttothem.Heacceptedtheir

premisesthatwefacedamortaldomesticstruggle;intheprocessheaccelerated

andcompoundeditsbitterness.



Fairnesscompelstherecognitionthathehadpreciouslittlehelp.Afterall,

HubertHumphrey,whoseentirelifewasareachforreconciliation,hadbeen

treatedscarcelybetterduringhiscampaignforthePresidency.AndafterNixon

tookofficethosewhohadcreatedourinvolvementinVietnammovedfirstto

neutralityandthentoopposition,saddlingNixonwithresponsibilityforawarhe

hadinheritedandattackinghiminthenameofsolutionstheythemselveshad

neitheradvocatednorexecutedwhentheyhadtheopportunity.



TheNixonAdministrationenteredofficedeterminedtoendour

involvementinVietnam.Butitsooncameupagainsttherealitythathadalso

bedevileditspredecessor.Fornearlyagenerationthesecurityandprogressof

freepeopleshaddependedonconfidenceinAmerica.Wecouldnotsimplywalk

awayfromanenterpriseinvolvingtwoadministrations,fivealliedcountries,and

thirty‐onethousanddeadasifwewereswitchingatelevisionchannel.Many

urgedusto“emulatedeGaulle”;buttheyoverlookedthatittookevendeGaulle

fouryearstoextricatehiscountryfromAlgeriabecausehe,too,thoughtit

importantforFrancetoemerge fromitstravailswithitsdomesticcohesionand

internationalstatureintact. HeextricatedFrancefromAlgeriaasanactofpolicy,

notasacollapse,inamannerreflectinganationaldecisionandnotarout.



SuchanendingofthewarwasevenmoreimportantfortheUnitedStates.

Astheleaderofdemocraticallianceswehadtorememberthatscoresof

countriesandmillionsofpeoplereliedfortheirsecurityonourwillingnessto

standbyallies,indeedonourconfidenceinourselves.Noseriouspolicymaker

couldallowhimselftosuccumbtothefashionabledebunkingof“prestige”or

“honor”or“credibility.”Foragreatpowertoabandonasmallcountrytotyranny

simplytoobtainarespitefromourowntravailseemedtome—andstillseemsto

me—profoundlyimmoralanddestructiveofoureffortstobuildanewand

ultimatelymorepeacefulpatternofinternationalrelations.Wecouldnot

revitalizetheAtlanticAllianceifitsgovernmentswereassailedbydoubtabout

Americanstayingpower.WewouldnotbeabletomovetheSovietUniontoward

theimperativeofmutualrestraintagainstthebackgroundofcapitulationina

majorwar.WemightnotachieveouropeningtoChinaifourvalueasa

counterweightseemednullifiedbyacollapsethatshowedusirrelevanttoAsian

security.OursuccessinMiddleEastdiplomacywoulddependonconvincingour

allyofourreliabilityanditsadversariesthatwewereimpervioustothreatsof

militarypressureorblackmail.Clearly,theAmericanpeoplewantedtoendthe

war,buteverypoll,andindeedNixon’selection(andtheWallacevote),madeit

equallyevidentthattheysawtheircountry’saimsashonorable anddidnotrelish

America’shumiliation.ThenewAdministrationhadtorespecttheconcernsofthe

opponentsofthewarbutalsotheanguishofthefamilieswhosesonshad

sufferedanddiedfortheircountryandwhodidnotwantitdetermined—after

thefact—thattheirsacrificehadbeeninvain.



TheprinciplesofAmerica’shonorandAmerica’sresponsibilitywerenot

emptyphrasestome.Ifeltthempowerfully.IhadbeenborninGermanyinthe

BavariantownofFuerth,sixmonthsbeforeHitler’sattemptedbeerhallputschin

Bavaria’scapital,Munich.HitlercametopowerwhenIwasnineyearsold.

Nuremberg,ofwhichFuerthwasaneighborwiththesamephysicaland

psychologicalrelationshipasBrooklynhastoNewYork,wasknownforitsNazi

support,massiveNaziPartyrallies,andthenotoriousraciallaws.UntilIemigrated

toAmerica,myfamilyandIenduredprogressiveostracismanddiscrimination.My

fatherlosttheteachingjobforwhichhehadworkedallhislife;thefriendsofmy

parents’youthshunnedthem.Iwasforcedtoattenda segregatedschool.Every

walkinthestreetturnedintoanadventure,formyGermancontemporarieswere

freetobeatupJewishchildrenwithoutinterferencebythepolice.



ThroughthisperiodAmericaacquiredawondrousqualityforme.WhenI

wasaboyitwasadream,anincredibleplacewheretolerancewasnaturaland

personalfreedomunchallenged.EvenwhenIlearnedlaterthatAmerica,too,had

massiveproblems,Icouldneverforgetwhataninspirationithadbeentothe

victimsofpersecution,tomyfamily,andtomeduring cruelanddegradingyears.I

alwaysrememberedthethrillwhenIfirstwalkedthestreetsofNewYorkCity.

Seeingagroupofboys,Ibegantocrosstotheothersidetoavoidbeingbeaten

up.AndthenIrememberedwhereIwas.



IthereforehavealwayshadaspecialfeelingforwhatAmericameans,

whichnative‐borncitizensperhapstakeforgranted.Icouldnotaccepttheself‐

hatredthattookeveryimperfectionasanexcuse todenigrateaprecious

experimentwhosesignificancefortherestoftheworldhadbeenpartofmylife.I

wasenormouslygratifiedtohaveanopportunitytorepaymydebttoasociety

whoseblemishesIrecognizedbutalsosawina differentperspective;theycould

notobscureformeitsgreatness,itsidealism,itshumanity,anditsembodimentof

mankind’shopes.



ThedomesticturmoiloftheVietnamdebatethereforepainedmedeeply.I

didnotagreewithmanyofthedecisionsthathadbroughtabouttheimpassein

Indochina;Ifelt,however,thatmyappointmenttohighofficeentaileda

responsibilitytohelpendthewarinawaycompatiblewithAmericanself‐respect

andthestakethatallmenandwomenofgoodwillhadinAmerica’sstrengthand

purpose.ItseemedtomeimportantforAmericanottobehumiliated,nottobe

shattered,buttoleaveVietnaminamannerthateventheprotestersmightlater

seeasreflectinganAmericanchoicemadewithdignity andself‐respect.

Ironically,inviewofthelaterchargesof“historicalpessimism”leveledagainst

me,itwaspreciselytheissueofourself‐confidenceandfaithinourfuturethatI

consideredatstakeintheoutcomeinVietnam.



Ibelievedinthemoralsignificanceofmyadoptedcountry.America,alone

ofthefreecountries,wasstrongenoughtoassureglobalsecurityagainstthe

forcesoftyranny.OnlyAmericahadboththepowerandthedecencytoinspire

otherpeopleswhostruggledforidentity,forprogressanddignity.IntheThirties,

whenthedemocraciesfacedthegravestdanger,Americawaswaitinginthe

wingstocometoEurope’srescue.TherewasnoonenowtocometoAmerica’s

rescueifweabandonedourinternationalresponsibilitiesorifwesuccumbedto

self‐hatred.



Unlikemostofmycontemporaries,Ihadexperiencedthefragilityofthe

fabricofmodernsociety.Ihadseenthatthelikelyoutcomeofthedissolutionof

allsocialbondsandtheunderminingofallbasicvaluesisextremism,despair,and

brutality.Apeoplemustnotlosefaithinitself;thosewhowallowinthe

imperfectionsoftheirsocietyorturnthemintoanexcuseforanihilisticorgy

usuallyendupbyerodingallsocialandmoralrestraints;eventuallyintheir

pitilessassaultonallbeliefstheymultiplysuffering.



IcouldneverbringmyselftothinkofthewarinVietnamasamonstrous

criminalconspiracy,aswasfashionableinsomecircles.Inmyviewourentryinto

thewarhadbeentheproductnotofamilitaristpsychosisbutofanaiveidealism

thatwantedtosetrightalltheworld’sillsandbelievedAmericangoodwill

supplieditsownefficacy.Ihadvisite dVietnamasaprofessor.Isawtherenotugly

Americans—though,asinallwars,theseexistedtoo—butdedicatedyoungmen

facingdeathdailydespitethedivisionsathome;myrecollectionwasofmany

idealisticAmericansworkingunderimpossibleconditionstobringgovernment

andhealthanddevelopmenttoaterrifiedandbewilderedpeople.Ithoughtthe

countryowedsomethingtotheirsacrificeandnotonlytothevocalprotesters. 

SomeofthecriticsviewedVietnamasamoralityplayinwhichthewickedmust

bepunishedbeforethefinalcurtainandwhereanyattempttosalvageself‐

respectfromtheoutcomecompoundedthewrong.Ivieweditasagenuine

tragedy.Noonehadamonopolyonanguish.



Isawmyroleashelpingmyadoptedcountryhealitswounds,preserveits

faith,andthusenableittorededicateitselftothegreattasksofconstructionthat

wereawaitingit.



<<Contents>>



****



MyExposuretotheQuagmire



yownexposuretoVietnamwasimperceptiblygradualandprogressively

sobering;itparalleledthesimplificationsthatledourgovernmentintoan

adventurewhoseultimatecost provedoutofproportiontoanyconceivablegain.

Isharedthegradualdisillusionment.



IntheearlySixtiesIdidnotpaymuchattentiontoVietnam.Europe,

strategy,andarmscontrolweremyacademicspecialties. InsofarasIheldany

views,IsharedtheconventionalwisdomthatthewarwasaneffortbyNorth

VietnamtotakeoverSouthVietnambymilitaryforce.ThisIcontinuetobelieve.

IntheearlySixtiesthepossibilityofsendingAmericancombattroopsdidnot

occurtome.AsChapterVIpointedout,theJohnsonAdministrationsawPekingas

mastermindingtheVietnamaggression.TheKennedyAdministration,whichhad

sentthefirst16,000AmericanmilitaryadviserstoVietnam,hadalsobeen

fascinatedbythephenomenonofguerrillawar,thoughittendedtoseethe

inspirationinaJanuary1961speechbyNikitaKhrushchevendorsing“warsof

nationalliberation.”



WhentheKennedyAdministrationsentthose16,000adviserstoVietnam,I

rememberaskingWaltRostow,thenDirectorofthePolicyPlanningStaffofthe

StateDepartment,whatmadehimthinkwewouldsucceedwiththatnumber

whentheFrenchhadfailedwithseveralhundredthousand.Rostowgavemethe

shortshriftthatharassedofficialsreserveforrankamateurswhoshouldbe

mindingtheirownbusiness.TheFrench,heexplained,asifteachingthealphabet