Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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LiberalPartywasexpelledfromthegovernmentasanentrancepriceforthe

Socialists;ittoodeclinedwitheveryelection.Theleft‐wingSocialistsdidnot

profit,becausetheyremainedincoalitionwiththeCommunistsintheprovinces

whilegoverningwiththeChristianDemocratsinRome.Suchapartycouldonly

exhaustitselfinambivalence;unwillingtogiveupeitherofitsalliances,itcould

neitherfunctionasabarrieragainsttheCommunistsintheprovinces,noraspire

toreformtheChristianDemocratsinRome.



Thus,farfromisolatingtheCommunists,theopeningtotheleftmadethem

thesolesignificantoppositionparty.Bydestroyingthesmallerdemocraticparties,

theexperimentdeprivedtheItalianpoliticalsystemofflexibility.Anycrisisof

governmentwouldhenceforthbenefittheCommunists;Italyincreasinglyfaced

thechoicebetweentheChristianDemocrats,frozenintoimmobility,andaradical

antidemocraticchange.InthelateSixties,thisominoushistoricprocesswasjust

becomingapparent.Theministersstillavowedtheiranti‐Communism,butthe

electoralarithmeticincreasinglybeliedtheseprofessions.Anyfundamental

changewouldthreatennotonlytheruleofthegoverningpartybutthe

democraticsystemitself.



RomewastheonlycapitalinwhichsubstantialriotsgreetedNixon.The

CommunistshadnotyetmadetheirostensiblepublicconversiontoNATO(which

wouldcomewhentheywereontheedgeofpoweranditofferedtacticalbenefit).

Theydemonstratedundertheslogan“NATOoutofItalyandItalyoutofNATO.”

Nixonrepeatedhisbasicthemesoftheotherstops:hiscommitmenttofull

consultation,hiscautiousapproachtotheSovietUnion,hisdesireforpeace.All

thiswaswellenoughreceivedbytheItalianleaders,butmuchasthoughitwere

newsfromadistantplanet—interesting,butbasicallyirrelevanttotheirmain 

concerns.



Meetingsoccurredinasomewhathaphazardfashion.PresidentGiuseppe

SaragatinsistedonreceivingNixonwithouthisministers,becauseinfrontof

themhewasafraidtoexpresshisforebodingsaboutCommunistgains.Saragat

provedcrispandthoughtfulintheseprivatetalks,buthisimpactwasattenuated

bytheconstitutionalfactthattheItalianPresidentisnotpartofthepolitical

process.SaragatgaveanenormousstatedinnerintheornateQuirinalePalace.

Sinceitpermittednoseriousconversation,andsincenoonehadanyideawhoof

themanyItalianleaderswouldplayamajorroleovertheyears,Nixonreceiveda

largenumberofthemonebyoneinasmallerroomofthePalacewhilebrandy

wasbeingservedtotherestoftheguests.Theimpressioncreatedbythis

procedurewasmorekaleidoscopic thanilluminating.Noneoftheleadersof

whateverpartyhadanyconcreteprogram,sincehisactioninoffice,shouldhe

reachit,woulddependlessonhispersonalconvictionsthanonthebalanceof

forceshewouldfindthere.



InacuriouswayItalyhadnotyetbrokenwithitsRenaissancetradition.Its

partiesactedlikethecongeriesofcity‐statesthathaddominatedmuchofItaly’s

history.TheChristianDemocratswereacombinationofNaplesandFlorence,

seductivelysmotheringchangeinpliantformsandmanagingtheirrivalsbythe

subtlestrategemsofMachiavelli;theCommunists werePiedmontreinforcedby

MoscowasthetraditionalPiedmont hadbeenencouragedbyFrance;disciplined,

rational,dour.TheRepublicanPartywasamodestcity‐statelikeModena,getting

byontheprestigeofitsintelligence.OnlytheSocialistswereintrouble.They

aspiredtonationalandEuropeanfoundationsthathadfewroots inItalian

history.



Manyofthesetendenciesemergedatalargeformalmeetingwiththe

government,inwhichalmostallministerswerepresent,attheVillaMadonna,a

beautifulRenaissance palaceoverlookingRome.Itwasprecededbyaprivate

meetingbetweenNixonandPrimeMinisterRumorthatwasdoomedto

inconclusivenesssinceRumorcouldmakenocommitmentswithouthisministers,

andtheassembledministerswere,inturn,toonumeroustopermitafocused

discussionattheplenarysession—whichNixoninanycaseabhorredbecauseof

itslargesize.TheItalianconcernsweretoendthewarinVietnaminorderto

removeaCommunistpropaga ndatheme,toencourageBritishmembershipinthe

CommonMarket,toreduceGaullisttrends,andtoconciliatetheEasttogivethe

Allianceapurpose.Thesepropositionswereputforwardasfriendlyexhortations

toatrustedally;theywerenotaccompaniedbyanyspecificproposal.Italian

ministersweresilentonissuesofdefense.



<<Contents>>



****



TheColossusofdeGaulle



helaststopofNixon’sodysseywasParis,whereweweregreetedatthe

airportbytheextraordinaryfigureofCharlesdeGaulle,PresidentoftheFifth

FrenchRepublic.Heexudedauthor ity.Fourweekslater,hewastovisit

WashingtonforthefuneralofPresidentEisenhower.Hispresenceatthe

receptiontenderedbyNixonwassooverwhelmingthathewasthecenterof

attentionwhereverhestood.OtherheadsofgovernmentandmanySenators

whousuallyproc laimedtheirantipathytoauthoritariangeneralscrowdedaround

himandtreatedhimlikesomestrangespecies.Onehadthesensethatifhe

movedtoawindowthecenterofgravitymightshiftandthewholeroommight

tilteverybodyintothegarden.

T



DeGaullehadbeco methespokesmanofthenation‐stateandofEuropean

autonomyfromtheUnitedStates.Galliclogicoftentemptedhimtocarryhis

postulatestoextremesunnece ssarilywoundingtoAmericans.Whenwetook

officemutualdistrusthadmadecalmdiscussionimpossible;deGaullehad

becomeanathematoourpo licymakers.Theirfeelingswerereciprocated.Itwasa

pitybecausedeGaullehadraisedanimportantissueaboutthenatureof

internationalcooperation.Washingtondreamedofastructurethatmade

separateactionphysicallyimpossiblebyassigningeachpartneraportionofthe

overalltask.DeGaulleinsistedthatcooperationwouldbeeffectiveonlyifeach

partnerhadarealchoice;therefore,eachallymust—atleasttheoretically—be

abletoactautonomously.Washington,postulatingawebofcommoninterests ,

reliedonconsultationtodissolvedisagreements.AndintheAmericanview,

influenceinthatconsultativeprocesswasproportionateto anation’s

contributiontoacommoneffort,somewhatlikeowningsharesinastock

company.



DeGaulle,asthesonofacontinentcoveredwithruinstestifying tothe

fallibilityofhumanforesight,didnotacceptsoinstitutionalanapproach.

Europeanself‐confidence,inhisview,requirednotonlytheopportunityto

consult;italsodependedontheoptionsavailableincasedisagreementwas

beyondresolution.Therefore,whereAmericanspokesmenstressedpartnership,

deGaulleemphasizedequilibrium. TodeGaulle,soundrelationshipsdepended

lessonpersonalgoodwillandwillingnesstocooperatethanonabalanceof

pressuresandtheunderstandingoftherelationofforces.“Man‘limitedbyhis

nature’is‘infiniteinhisdesires,’“heargued.“Theworldisthusfullofopposing

forces.Ofcourse,humanwisdomhasoftensucceededinpreventingthese

rivalriesfromdegeneratingintomurderousconflicts.Butthecompetitionof

effortsistheconditionoflife.Ourcountryfindsitselfconfrontedtodaywiththis

lawofthespecies,asithasbeenfortwothousandyears.”

Theartof

statesmanship,deGaullereasoned,wastounderstandthetrendofhistory.A

greatleadermaybeclever,buthemustbeabovealllucidandclear‐sighted.To

deGaulle,grandeurwasnotsimplyphysicalpower,butstrengthreinforcedby

moralpurpose.Nordidcompetition,inhisview,inevitablyinvolvephysical

conflict.Paradoxically,deGaullecouldseetruepartnershipemergeonlyfroma

contestofwillsbecauseonlyinthismannerwouldeachsidemaintainitsself‐

respect:“Yes,internationallife,likelifeingeneral,isabattle.Thebattlewhich

ourcountryiswagingtendstouniteandnottodivide,tohonorandnotto

debase,toliberateandnottodominate.Thusitisfaithfultoitsmission,which

alwayswasandwhichremainshumananduniversal.”



Withthisphilosophy,deGaullecouldnotpossiblyaccepttheAmerican

convictionoftheobsolescenceofthenation‐state.Theproblemwasnotthathe

wishedtoreactivateEurope’straditionalnationalrivalries,assomanyofhis

Americancriticsalleged.Onthecontrary,hepassionatelyaffirmedthegoalof

unityforEurope.ButwheretheAmericanandEuropean“integrationists”insisted

thatEuropeanunityrequiredthatthenation‐statebesubsumedinafederal

supranationalstructure,deGaullearguedthatEurope’sidentityandultimatelyits

unitydependedonthevitalityandself‐confidenceofthetraditionalEuropean

nationalentities.TodeGaulle,statesweretheonlylegitimatesourceofpower;

onlytheycouldactresponsibly:“…itistruethatthenationisahumanand

sentimentalelement,whereasEuropecanbebuiltonthebasisofactive,

authoritativeandresponsibleelements.Whatelements?TheStates,ofcourse;

for,inthisrespect,itisonlytheStatesthatarevalid,legitimateandcapableof

achievement.Ihavealreadysaid,andIrepeat,thatatthepresenttimethere

cannotbeanyotherEuropethana EuropeofStates,apart,ofcourse,frommyths,

storiesandparades.”

And:“TheStatesare,intruth,certainlyverydifferentfrom

oneanother,eachofwhichhasitsownspirit,itsownhistory,itsownlanguage,its

ownmisfortunes,gloriesandambitions;buttheseStatesaretheonlyentitiesthat

havetherighttoorderandtheauthoritytoact.”



WhendeGaulle excludedBritainfromtheCommonMarketin1963,the

outrageinWashingtontookanalmostpalpablypersonalform.Whenhe

withdrewfromNATO’sintegratedcommandin1966,thatoutrageturnedinto

vindictiveness.MuchofourEuropeanpolicyinthelateSixtieswasafutileeffort

toisolateFranceandpunishit—futilebecausesomeEuropeansagreedwithhim

andothersweretooweaktoopposehim.



AsIhaveindicated,IneverparticipatedinthecondemnationofGeneralde

Gaulle;infact,IthoughtourEuropeanpolicyoftheSixtiesgenerally

misconceived.Wewere,itseemedtome,extraordinarilyinsensitivetothe

psychologicalproblemsofacountrylikeFrance,whichhadbarelysurvivedtwo

worldwars,whichhadbeenhumiliatedin1940,andwhichin1958,1960,and

1962hadbeenatthebrinkofcivilwar.DeGaulle’soverridingchallengewasto

restoreFrance’sfaithinitself.Howwellhesucceededwasshownbythefactthat

threeyearsaftertheendoftheAlgerianwar(whichmostobservershadexpected

toenfeebleFrancewithinternaldivisionsfordecades),thecommoncomplaint

wasthatFrancewasconductingaforeignpolicymorevigorousandassertivethan

itsrealcapabilitiesshouldhaveallowed.



IwaspersuadedthataEuropeseekingtoplayaninternationalrole,evenif

occasionallyassertive,wasmoreinourinterestthanaquiescentEurope

abdicatingresponsibilitiesintheguiseoffollowingAmericanleadership.Nordid

deGaulle’sattitudetowardsupranationalinstitutionsseemtomeextraordinary.

Britainhadexactlythesameview;thechiefdifferencewasthatBritishstatesmen

characteristicallyexpressedtheirdisagreementsonmorepragmaticgroundsand

inalessdoctrinairemanner.[

BothpartiesinBritainrejectedsupranationalinstitutions.

WhenHaroldMacmillanannouncedBritain’sfirstapplicationforentryintotheCommon

MarketinJuly1961,heassuredParliamentthathehadnointerestina“federalistsystem”that

wasbasedona“completelyfalseanalogy”withtheAmericanfederalunion.LabourParty

leaderHughGaitskellopposedBritishmembershipbecause,despiteMacmillan’sassurances,he

fearedthatBritainmightlosethefreedomtoconductitsownsocialistdomesticpoliciesif

submergedinaChristianDemocraticEurope.

]Wedidnotneedtoinsistonstructures

thatenshrinedourleadershippositionbe cause,lefttotheirowndevices,

Europeanswerelikelytocometoconclusionsabouttheirvitalinterestsparallelto

oursonmostmattersaffectingthesecurityoftheAtlanticarea.Nixon’sviews

coincidedwithmine,thoughhegavethema lesstheoreticalcast.



BeforeandduringourParisvisit,wetookeveryopportunitytostressour

determinationtoendtheolddisputeswithFrance.OnFebruary28Itoldthe

pressinabackgroundbriefinginParis:



ItistheconvictionofthePresidentthatitservesnopurpose,itservesnobody’spurpose

fortheUnitedStatesandFrancetohaveavoidablebadrelations.Theoneclearmessagewegot

ineverycountrythatwevisitedwas…thattheydonotwanttobeinthepositionofhavingto

choosebetweentheUnitedStatesandFrance…Ithinkwearemakingitpossibleforevery

countrytomaketheirdecisiononthemeritsoftheissues,ifwearenotinanorganic

permanentconflictwithFrance…



NixonexpressedhispersonaladmirationfordeGaulleduringthelavish

statedinnerattheElyséePala ce.HecharacterizeddeGaulle’slifeas“anepicof

courage,anepicalsoofleaders hipseldomequaledinthehistoryoftheworld,

leadershipwhichnowhasbroughtthisgreatnationtotherightfulplacethatit

shouldhaveinthefamilyofnations.”HedescribeddeGaulleas“aleaderwhohas

becomeagiantamongmenbecausehehadcourage,becausehehadvision,and

becausehehadthewisdomthattheworldnowseekstosolveitsdifficult

problems.”DeGaullereciprocatedtherespectfulwarmth,makingthegesture

(rareforhim)ofattendingNixon’sreturndinnerattheAmericanEmbassy.



NixonanddeGaullehadthreelongmeetings.Iattendedonlyoneofthem

butreadthetranscriptoftheothersmadebyourmasterfulinterpreter,General

VernonA.Walters.DeGaullespokewiththegraphiccommandoflanguage on

whichsomuchofhisauthorityrested.Hishistoricalsweepmadenecessityappear

asthehandmaidenofthestatesman’sperception.East‐Westrelationswerethe

topicofhisfirstmeeting,attheElyséePalace.DeGaullespokeoftheChinese

peopleandtheneedtokeepthemfrombeing“isolatedintheirownrage.”He

calledforanendtothewarinVietnam,suggestingthatweuseatimelimitonour

withdrawalasameansofobtainingapoliticalaccommodation—thoughhaving

sketchedtheobjective,hesuppliednoclueastohowtoachieveit.Heurgedan

imposedsolutionintheMiddleEast;thisshouldbeachievedinaFour‐Power

forum,hethought.WhenNixonsuggestedparallelUS‐Soviettalkshemadea

showofindifferencethatscarcelyobscuredhisextremereserve.DeGaullehadno

interestintemptingaUS‐Sovietcondominium.(Thiswillbediscussedfurtherin

ChapterXontheMiddleEast.)



AsfortheSovietUnion,deGaullecoupledaninsistenceontheneedfora

strongdefensewithabroadhistoricalargumentforthenecessityofdétente.

TherewasRussiaandtherewasCommunism,hesaid.TheCommunistswereno

longeradvancing;thedangerofCommunismwasnotover,butitcouldnolonger

conquertheworld.Itwastoolateforthat.Thedynamichadgone.Russiawasa

vastcountrywithalonghistory,greatresources,pride,andambitionsthatwere

notnecessarilyCommunist.WhiletheSovietleaderswouldbedelightedifthe

UnitedStatesandEuropediminishedtheirdefenseefforts,theywerenotlikelyto

marchWest.Thatwouldleadtoageneralwar,andMoscow knewitcouldnot

win.TheUnitedStatescouldnotallowittoconquerEurope,forthatwouldalso

meantheconquestofAsiaandtheisolationoftheUnitedStatesontheAmerican

continent.Inawar,Moscowmighthaveinitialsuccess,buttheUnitedStates

wouldeventuallyuseallofitspoweranddestroyRussia.



TheprincipalconcernoftheSovietleaders,saiddeGaulle,wasChina.The

RussiansviewedtheirrelationswiththeWestandtheUnitedStatesinlightofthe

problemstheyexpectedto havewithPeking.Thus,withprudenceandsome

Westernflexibility,theymightwelloptforapolicyofrapprochementwiththe

WestinordertobesurethattheWestwouldnotdealwithChinabehindtheir

back.Theywerethussincere,hewasconvinced,intheirdesirefordétente.And

détentehethoughtmightalsoserveotherWesternpurposes.Itmeantcontacts,

trips,exchangeofgoodsandofopinion.Thetrendtowardfreedomanddignity,

whichwasnotdeadinEasternEurope,wouldsurelyflourishinanatmosphereof

détente.Whenpeoplesawthemselvesattheedgeofwar,therewasalwaysa

pretextfortightcontrol,butthiswouldnotbemaintainedwhentensionsrelaxed.

Besides,whatwasthealternative?Ifonedidnotwanttomakewarorbreak

downtheBerlinWall,therewasnoalternativeexcepttodonothingatall.And

thatwasalwaystheworstpossiblecourse.



DeGaullethereforeapprovedofAmericancontactswiththeSoviets,seeing

inthemanapplicationofprincipleshewasalreadyimplementing.Buthe

cautionedagainstUS‐Sovietcollusion.TheUnitedStatesshouldhave“company”

whenitmadeagreements;itshouldavoidwhat“somepeople”calleda“Yalta

idea.”Hewasnot,inshort,somuchanadvocateofdétenteastowishto

promoteaUS‐Sovietbilateralarrangement.



NixonanddeGaullemetadaylaterintheGrandTrianonPalaceat

Versailles.TheGeneralwaseloquentaboutAtlanticrelations.Hesketchedhis

perceptionofEurope:ofItalyimprisonedintheMediterraneanandisolatedby

theAlps;ofGermany,thesourceofallEurope’smisfortunes,cutintwoand

watchedbybothsides;ofFrance,acontinentalcountrywithaccesstothesea;of

Britainfacingtheoceansandmadeforoverseastrade.Thesefourcountries,the

onlyonesofrealweightinEurope,wereasdifferentintheirlanguage,customs,

history,andinterestsastheywereintheirgeographiclocation.They,notsome

abstractconceptionofintegration,werethepoliticalrealityofaEuropethatdid

notexistbeyondthem.



DeGaullestressedthatitwasimperativefortheSovietstoknowthatthe

UnitedStateswouldstandwithitsalliesinEuropeincaseofattack.ButNATO,the

integratedcommand,wasanothermatter.Hedidnotobjecttoothercountries’

willingnesstoacceptanAmericanprotectorate.ButtoFrance,integration

amountedtoarenunciationofherowndefense.Ifawarwerefoughtbyan

integratedNATO,theFrenchpeoplewouldfeelthatitwasanAmerican,andnota

French,war.Thiswouldmeantheendofnationaleffort,andthereforetheendof

Frenchnationalpolicy.France,thusdemoralized,wouldthenquicklyreverttoa

situationwhereshehadthirtypoliticalparties.IndeGaulle’sview,France,

perhapsparadoxically,renderedthegreatestservicetotheAlliancebybeing

independent.



Theseviews,socontraryto Americanpostwarpreconceptions,werethose

ofanancientcountrygrownskepticalthroughmanyenthusiasmsshatteredand

consciousthattobemeaningfultoothers,Francehadfirstofalltomean

somethingtoherself.TheGeneral,whilerejectingintegrationofmilitaryforces,

favoredcoordinationofforeignpolicies.Ourapproachinthepasthadtendedto

bethereverse.TheNixonAdministrationsoughttobringaboutcoordinationin

bothfields.



Therewasabriefthirdmeeting,attheElysée,onVietnam,China,and

bilateralrelations.OnVietnamdeGaullesummeduphisviewsofthefirst

meeting.IshalldealwiththeChinadiscussionintheappropriatechapter.On

bilateralissuesNixonmaintainedwiselythattherewasnowaytobridgethe

theoreticaldisputesintheAlliance;thereforeeffortsshouldbemadetowork

togetheronconcreteprojectsofcommonconcern.TothisdeGaulleagreed.



ExceptonEuropeandinthepowerofhispresentation,deGaulle’sideas

werenotdrasticallydifferentfromthoseoftheotherWestEuropeanleaders.He

favoredastrongdefense;itwastheprerequisiteofaneraofnegotiations.He

madenogreatereffortthanhiscolleaguestoreconcilethepotential

incompatibilitybetweendétenteanddefense:themoresuccessfuldétente,the

lesstheincentivefordefense.Themajordifferencewasthathiscolleagues

justifiedtheirEast‐Westpoliciesbydomesticpre ssures;deGaulleplacedhisideas

intheserviceofanhistoricalvision.



ItwouldbepleasanttoreportthatmyowncontactwithdeGaullewasata

levelequaltomysenseofhishistoricimportance.Unfortunately,thiswasnotso.

TheGeneralconsideredPresidentialAssistantsasfunc tionarieswhoseviews

shouldbesolicitedonlytoenabletheprincipalstoestablishsometechnicalpoint;

hedidnottreatthemasautono mousentities.Attheendofthedinneratthe

Elysée,whileliqueurwasbeingserved,anaidetoldmethattheGeneralwished

toseeme.Withouttheslightestattemptatsmalltalk,deGaullegreetedmewith

thequery:“Whydon’tyougetoutofVietnam?”



“Because,”Ireplied,“asuddenwithdrawalmightgiveusacredibility

problem.”



“Where?”theGeneralwantedtoknow.ImentionedtheMiddleEast.



“Howveryodd,”saidtheGeneralfromafootaboveme.“Itispreciselyin

theMiddleEastthatIthoughtyourenemieshadthecredibilityproblem.”



ThenextdayIwasaskedtodrinksbeforelunchwiththetwoPresidents.

NixonhadtheamazingideaofaskingmewhatIthoughtofdeGaulle’sviewson

Europe.AndIhadtheextraordinarilypoorjudgmenttorespondtoNixon’s

request.DeGaulleconsideredthisinvitationsoastonishingthatinpreparing

himselffortheimpertinenceofmyopinionhedrewhimselfuptoanevenmore

imposingheight.“Ifounditfascinating,” Isaid.“ButIdonotknowhowthe

PresidentwillkeepGermanyfromdominatingtheEuropehehasjustdescribed.”

DeGaulle,seizedbyprofoundmelancholyatsomuchobtuseness,seemedto

growanotherinchashecontemplatedmewiththenaturalhaughtinessofa

snowcappedAlpinepeaktowardalittlefoothill.“Parlaguerre,”hesaidsimply

(“throughwar”).



Inordertogivemeachancewithasubjectpresumablywithinthegraspof

aprofessor,deGaulleturnedtoadiscussionofhistory.Whichnineteenth‐century

diplomat,hewanted toknow,hadimpressedmemost? 



“Bismarck,”Ireplied.



“Why?”askedtheGeneral.



“Becauseofhismoderatio naftervictory,” Isaid.HadIstoppedthere,all

mighthavebeenwell.Unfortunately,Iwasonalosingstreakandpressedon.“He

failedonlyonce,whenin1871,againsthisbetterjudgment,heacquiescedinthe

GeneralStaff’sdesiretoannexbothAlsaceandLorraine.Healwayssaidthathe

hadachievedmorethanwasgoodforGermany.”



DeGaullegaveupat thispoint.“IamgladBismarckdidnot gethisway,”he

said.“Itgaveusachancetoreconquereverythingin1918.”



IdonotbelieveI madealastingimpress iononthegreatFrenchleader.



TheParisstopwasthehighpointofNixon’sfirstEuropeantrip.Hedoubled

backtoRomeforabriefmeeting withthePope,discussingthephilosophical

attractionofCommunismandtheunrestofyouth,beforeheadinghome.



WhenwearrivedatAndrews,Nixonhadeveryreasontobesatisfiedwith

hisvisittoEurope.HissummarytoCongressionalleaderswasafairaccount.He

hadsetouttoestablishanewrelationshipofconfidencewiththeEuropean

leaders.Hehadsucceededwithinthelimitsofwhatwaspossibleinonetrip.He

hadsoughttogettheUnitedStatesoutofintra‐Europeanquarrels.Progresshad

beenmadeinalltheserespects.HehadtosomeextentcalmedEuropeanfearsof

US‐Sovietcollusionattheirexpense;hehadwarnedagainstdétenteforitsown

sakeasraisingthedangerofcomplacency.Hehademphasizedtheneedfor

equitableburden‐sharinginNATOandforadaptingAlliancedoctrinetonew

realities.Astarthadbeenmadetowardanewspiritofconsultation.



ClearlynosinglevisitorPresidentialexchangeofviewscouldovercomethe

ambivalencesintheAlliance:betweenthefearofaUS‐Sovietaccommodation

andtheaspirationtodétente;betweenitsinstinctforastrongdefenseandits

temptationtosacrificemilitarytodomesticprograms;betweenitsdesireforan

abidingAmericantroopcommitmentanditsconcernthatEuropebedefendedby