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ThosewhoarguedthatEuropewouldbemorewillingtoshareglobal

burdensifitwerefederallyintegratedseemedtometofollow toomechanicala

conceptofhistory.ThereasonEuropedidnotplayaglobalrolewasnotsomuch

shrinkingresourcesasshrinkinghorizons.Ididnotthinkthatcountriesshared

burdensmerelybecausetheywerecapableofdoingso.Throughthegreatestpart

ofitshistorytheUnitedStateshadtheresourcesbutnottheinclinationtoplaya

globalrole;conversely,manyEuropeancountriescontinuedtomaintainoverseas

commitmentsevenaftertheirresourcesbegantodwindle.Thelargestcolonial

empireintheSixtiesandpartoftheSeventieswasmaintainedbyPortugal,oneof

theweakestNATOmembers.Burden‐sharingamongtheallieswaslikelyonlyif

twoconditionsweremet:Europe hadtodevelopitsownperceptionof

internationalrelations,andEuropehadtobeconvincedthatwecouldnot,or

wouldnot,carrytheloadalone.NeitherconditionobtainedinthelateSixties.

Europeanswereabsorbedwithdomesticproblems.Totheextentthatthey

soughtreinsuranceagainstAmericanwithdrawal,theydidsonotbyadivisionof

laborwithusbutinduplicatingourstrengths,bybuildingstrategicweaponsof

theirown.AndEuropewouldneedtoarticulateapolicyofitsownbeforeitwould

assumegreaterburdensorresponsibilities.



IfavoredEuropeanunity,butI wasagnosticabouttheformitshouldtake,

whetheritshouldbeaconfederationofnation‐statesorasupranational

federation.IwantedEuropetoplayalargerinternationalrole,butwehadto face

thefactthatthisrolewouldderivefromanindependentconceptionthatwould

notalwaysagreewithours.Shortlybeforetheelection,Ihadwrittenaboutour

relationtoEurope:



Nocountrycanactwiselysimultaneouslyineverypartoftheglobeateverymomentof

time.Amorepluralisticworld—especiallyinrelationshipswithfriends—isprofoundlyinour

long‐terminterest.Politicalmultipolarity,whiledifficulttogetusedto,isthepreconditionfora

newperiodofcreativity.Painfulasitmaybetoadmit,wecouldbenefitfromacounterweight

thatwoulddisciplineouroccasionalimpetuosityand,bysupplyinghistoricalperspective,

modifyourpenchantforabstractand“final”solutions.



Thevitalityoffreepeopleswouldbetestedbytheanswertheygavetothe

age‐olddilemmaoffreedom:howtoreconcilediversityandunity,independence

andcollaboration,libertyandsecurity. 



<<Contents>>

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****



Londonandthe“SpecialRelationship”



romBrussels,NixonflewtoLondon.Theeaseandwarmthofhiswelcome

concealedthefactthatamajorstormhadjusttakenplace:anastydispute

betweenBritainandFranceoverthefutureofEurope,symptomaticofwhatlay

beforeus.

F



Theflare‐uphadbeguninprivateconversationswhichPresidentdeGaulle

hadhadwiththeBritishAmbassadorinParis,ChristopherSoames,whoas

WinstonChurchill’sson‐in‐lawwasnot whollyunfamiliarwithgreatnessoroverly

awedbygrandeur.ThecontroversytoldmuchaboutthedebatewithinEurope

andtheAllianceasawhole.OnFebruary4,1969,PresidentdeGaulleand

AmbassadorSoameschattedattheElyséePalace(thePresiden tialresidenceand

office)aboutthefutureofEurope;theyhadanothermeetingonthesamesubject

onFebruary14.TheBritishthereafterinformedtheirotherallies,includingus,

thatGeneraldeGaullehaddescribedhisconceptofthefutureofEuropeinrather

provocativeandsomewhatnovelterms.



TocreateatrulyindependentEurope,capableofmakingdecisionson

mattersofglobalimportance,deGaulle hadsaidthatfirstofallitwouldbe

necessaryforEuropeanstofreethemselvesfromtheencumbranceofNATO,with

its“Americandominationandmachinery.”AsuccessfulEuropeanpolitical

organizationwouldhavetorelyonaconcertofthemostsignificantEuropean

powers:France,England,Germany,andItaly.Andinthatrelationshipthecentral

elementwouldhavetobeAnglo‐Frenchunde rstandingandcooperation.

Secondly,inthisprocessthestructureoftheCommonMarkethadtochange,and

deGaulleinanyeventhadlittleconfidenceinitsfuture.Instead,hecould

envisageitsreplacementbysomesortofbroadfree‐tradearea,especiallyfor

agriculturalproducts.Thirdly,sincetheAnglo‐Frenchrelationshipwouldbethe

keystoneofthisconcept,theGeneralwasreadytoholdprivatebilateral

discussionswithBritainoneconomic,monetary,political,andfinancialproblems.

HesaidhewouldwelcomeaBritishinitiativeforsuchtalks.



TheBritishtoldusthattheyhadrepliedtodeGaullethattheUnited

KingdomstillwishedtojointheCommonMarketandhopedthatnegotiations

mightsoonbereopened.ThoughBritishviewsonNATO,relationswiththeUnited

States,andthedesirabilityofaFour‐Powerdirector ateinEuropediffered

materiallyfromdeGaulle’s,BritainconsideredtheGeneral’sproposalstobevery

significant.Itwaswillingtodiscussthemfurther,butonlyontheunderstanding

thatitsNATOpartne rswouldbekeptfullyinformed.Inthis connection,Soames

hadtolddeGaulleattheirsecondmeetingthatPrimeMinisterWilsonhadfeltit

hisdutytobriefGermanChancellorKiesingerwhenthetwometinBonnon

February13‐14.TheBritishalsoconveyedtheessenceofthedeGaulle‐Soames

talkstous,theBelgians,andotherallies;wordspreadlikewildfirethroughNATO.



OnFebruary17and18,FrenchambassadorstoEuropeancapitalssoughtto

ascertainhowmuchofthedeGaulle‐Soamesconversationshadbecom eknown

andtoofferassurancesthattheGeneralhadnointentionofbreakingupNATO.

HehadmerelytoldSoames,theysaid,thattheexpansionoftheCommonMarket

wouldinevitablychangeitscharacterandthatitssubsequentdirectionwould

havetobecloselyreviewed.



ByFebruary21,thesquabbleoverwhosaidwhattowhomhadreached

suchproportionsthatboththeBritishandtheFrenchfeltobligatedtoleaktheir

rivalversionstothepress.ABritishbackg rounderintheLondonTimesmatched

verycloselytheirearlierprivateaccounttous.AninspiredstoryintheParis

newspaperFigarorepliedthatdeGaullehadsimplysketchedhisviewsofan

independentEurope,whichcouldberealized“withouthavinganyeffectonthe

conceptionofNATO.”Figaro,forgoodmeasure,attackedAmbassadorSoames

personallyforhavingspreadaroundEuropea“sensationalversion”ofthe

General’sremarks,which“castdoubtsonthecredibilityofMr.Soames.”French

ForeignMinisterMichelDebrésoonafterwarddeclaredpubliclythattheGeneral

hadwantedonlytoexaminewhethertheBritishwereinterestedinexploratory

talkson“Europeanpoliticalandeconomicperspectives.”



Likeoldwarriorsofabattlewhosememorysustainedemotionand

righteousness,alltheAmericanveteransofpreviouscontroversieswithdeGaulle

rushedintothefray.ThenewAdministrationwasdelugedwithproposalsfrom

insideandoutsideourgovernmenttoseizetheopportunitytoreaffirmour

commitmenttoafederalEuropeandtorejectdeGaulle’sproposal—whichinany

eventhadnotbeenmadetous—foraspecialdirectorateofthelargerEuropean

powers.ThenewAdministrationwasbeingaskedtopickupthefallenlanceofits

predecessorandtiltoncemoreagainstthewindmillsofEuropeandogma,to

resumetheacrimoniousdebatewithFranceexactlywhereithadbeensuspended

byourelection.



Thisweweredeterminednottodo.WethoughttheorganizationofEurope

wasforEuropeanstodecide.TheUnitedStateshadwastedtoomuchofits

prestigeoversuchdoctrinaldisputes.OnFebruary22,thedaybeforeweflewto

Europe,IsentNixonabriefaccountoftheaffair,whichIconcludedasfollows:



IbelievethatdeGaulledidexpoundhisviewsonthefutureofEuropetoSoamesin

muchthetermsoriginallyreportedbytheBritish.Inanycase,thehopeforaEurope

independentofAmerican“domination”andguidedbytheconcertofthegreatestEuropean

powersiscompletelyinconsonancewithdeGaulle’srecordedviews.Itisalsocharacteristic

thatdeGaullewouldhaverecognizedthatsuchaconcertwouldhavetobebasedonAnglo‐

Frenchagreement,althoughonthesuppositionthatEnglandwouldemancipateitselffromany

“specialrelationship”withtheUnitedStates…



Youwillbeunderpressuretocomment.



Irecommendthatyou:



1. affirmourcommitmenttoNATO;



2. affirmourtraditionalsupportofEuropeanunity,includingBritishentryintothe

CommonMarket,but



3. makeclearthatwewillnotinjectourselvesintointra‐Europeandebatesonthe

forms,methodsandtimingofstepstowardunity.



Nixonfollowedthisapproachcarefullyandsubtlyinhisprivatetalks;I

repeateditofteninbackgroundbriefingsbeforeandaftertheEuropeantrip.

AskedabouttheSoames‐deGaullecontroversy,ItoldthepressonFebruary21:

“OurconcernistherelationshipoftheUnitedStatestoEurope,nottheinternal

arrangementsofEurope.”WeusedtheSoames‐deGaullecontroversytomake

clearthatouremphasiswouldbeonAtlanticrelations;wewouldleavethe

elaborationofEurope’sinternalarrangementstotheEuropeans.Inthelongrun

thiswouldbethestancemosthelpfultoBritain’sentryintotheCommonMarket.



NixonarrivedinLondonfromBrusselsonarainyMondayeveningtobe

greetedatHeathrowAirportbyPrimeMinisterHaroldWilsonandtheForeign

Secretary,MichaelStewart.Ceremonywassubduedbe causeNixonwasafraidof

beingaccusedofjunketingwhilethewarinVietnamwasragingandhadaskedto

limitprotocoltoaminimum.Thiswasapainfulsacrificesincehedearlyloved

ceremony,especiallyinBritain,whichhasraisedunderstatedpomptoamajorart

form.Morethanthatanywhere,Britishstateprotocoldeftlyreassuresthe

insecurethattheyareentitledtotheirhonorsonmerit.



HaroldWilsongreetedNixonwiththeavunculargoodwilloftheheadofan

ancientfamilythathasseenbettertimesbutisstillabletoevokememoriesofthe

wisdom,dignity,andpowerthathadestablishedthefamilynameinthefirst

place.HetookajabatdeGaullebyannouncinghisrejectionof“inwardlooking

attitudes”towardforeignaffairsandcontrasteditunfavorablywiththe“wider

worldconcept”putforwardbyNixon,to whichhepledgedsupport.ButWilson’s

majorthemewaswhathadbecomeritualalloverWesternEurope—thatthe

Alliancehadtomovefromsecuritytosuchpositiveendsas“cooperationand

peace.”ThepurposeoftheAllianceinthelateSixtieswasnolongerdefense—at

leastinpublicrhetoric;itsprincipaljustificationwasbecomingtherelaxationof

tension.Nixonwasnevertobeoutdonebyothers’high‐soundingproclamations.

Herespondedwithaphrasehewastoworktodeathinthe1972campaignwitha

consequentinflationofexpectationsfromdétente:“IbelieveasIstandhere

today,thatwecanbringaboutadurablepeaceinourtime.”Hewasinabuoyant

mood.Hetackledhead‐ontheso‐calledspecialrelationshipbetweenBritainand

theUnitedStatesthatwassocontentiouswithinourgovernment—byreferringto

itexplicitlytwiceandinmostpositiveterms.



ThisgavenolittlepaintomanyoftheEuropeanintegrationistsinthe

DepartmentofStateandoutsidethegovernment.Theadvocates—almost

fanatics—ofEuropeanunitywereeagertoterminatethe“specialrelationship”

withouroldestallyasanallegedfavortoBritaintosmoothitsentryintothe

CommonMarket.TheyfeltitessentialtodepriveBritainofanyspecialstatuswith

uslestitimpedeBritain’sroleintheEuropetheycherished.Theyurgedaformal

egalitarianism,unaffectedbytraditionorconceptionsofthenationalinterest,as

thebestguaranteeoftheirGrandDesign.



Evenifdesirable,whichIdoubted,thiswasimpractical.Forthespecial

relationshipwithBritainwaspeculiarlyimpervioustoabstracttheories.Itdidnot

dependonformalarrangements;itderivedinpartfromthememoryofBritain’s

heroicwartimeeffort;itreflectedthecommonlanguageandcultureoftwosister

peoples.Itowednolittleto thesuperbself‐disciplinebywhichBritainhad

succeededinmaintainingpoliticalinfluenceafteritsphysicalpowerhadwaned.

WhenBritainemergedfromtheSecondWorldWartooenfeebledtoinsistonits

views,itwastednotimeinmourninganirretrievablepast.Britishleade rsinstead

tenaciouslyelaboratedthe“specialrelationship”withus.Thiswas,ineffect,a

patternofconsultationsomatter‐of‐factlyintimatethatitbecamepsychologically 

impossibletoignoreBritishviews.Theyevolvedahabitofmeetingssoregular

thatautonomousAmericanactionsomehowcametoseemtoviolateclubrules.

Aboveall,theyusedeffectivelyanabundanceofwisdomandtrustworthinessof

conductsoexceptionalthatsuccessiveAmericanleaderssawitintheirself‐

interesttoobtainBritishadvicebeforetakingmajordecisions.Itwasan

extraordinaryrelationshipbecauseitrestedonnolegalclaim;itwasformalized

bynodocument;itwascarriedforwardbysucceedingBritishgovernmentsasif

noalternativewereconceivable.Britain’sinfluencewasgreatpreciselybecauseit

neverinsistedonit;the“specialrelationship”demonstratedthevalueof

intangibles.



OnefeatureoftheAnglo‐Americanrelationshipwasthedegreetowhich

diplomaticsubtletyovercamesubstantivedisagreements.Inreality,onEuropean

integrationtheviewsofBritain’sleaderswereclosertodeGaulle’sthantoours;

anintegratedsupranationalEuropewasasmuchanathemainBritainasinFrance.

ThemajordifferencebetweentheFrenchandtheBritishwasthattheBritish

leadersgenerallyconcededusthetheory—ofEuropeanintegrationorAtlantic

unity—whileseekingtoshapeitsimplementationthroughtheclosestcontacts

withus.WheredeGaulletendedtoconfrontuswithfaitsaccomplisanddoctrinal

challenges,Britainturnedconciliationintoaweaponbymakingitmorally

inconceivablethatitsviewscouldbeignored.



Iconsideredtheattacksfromwithinourgovernmentonthespecial

relationshipaspettyandformalistic. Severingourspecialties—assumingitcould

bedone—wouldundermineBritishself‐confidence,andgainusnothing.Ina

backgroundbriefingonFebruary21beforeourdepartureforEurope,Ipointed

out:



Myownpersonalviewonthisissueisthatwedonotsufferintheworldfromsuchan

excessoffriendsthatweshoulddiscouragethosewhofeelthattheyhaveaspecialfriendship

forus.IwouldthinkthattheanswertothespecialrelationshipofBritainwouldbetoraise

othercountriestothesamestatus,ratherthantodiscourageBritainintoalesswarm

relationshipwiththeUnitedStates.



NixonhadacceptedmyadvicenottobecomeinvolvedintheSoames‐de

Gaullecontroversy;healsohadlittleinterestinthedisputesolongasitwas

confinedtoobtuseandtheoreticalbureaucraticbackbiting.Believinginthe

“specialrelationship,”hesettledtheissue byhisarrivalstatement.



Thisfittedinwellwiththeapproachofourhosts.Everythingwaslow‐key,

personal,andsubtlyflattering.TheBritishhadgonetoextraordinarylengthsto

makeuscomfortablewithoutbeingintrusive,tobeavailableforanexchangeof

opinionwithoutaskingforanyspecificAmericanactioninreturn.Weweretaken

fromtheairporttoChequers,thePrimeMinister’scountryresidence,whichis

comfortablebutnotostentatious,fullofjustenoughhistorytoremindoneof

Britain’sgloriouspast.Butlikeitsoccupants,itissubtleandindirectinitslesson

anditsinfluence.Thefirstconversationstookplacethereoverdinner,asmall

privategatheringofNixonandWilson,RogersandStewart,SirBurkeTrend,the

BritishCabinetSecretary,andme.



Whenwefirstencounteredhim,HaroldWilsonhadthereputationofawily

politicianwhosepe netratingintelligencewasflawedbytheabsenceofultimate

reliability.SomeintheoutgoingAdministrationhadconsideredhimtooclose to

theleftwingoftheLabourParty;thisandhisvanityweresupposedtomakehim

unusuallysusceptibletoSovietblandishments.Andhewasaccusedofnotbeing

aboveusingourdiscomfitureinVietnamtoshoreuphisowndomesticposition.

InmyexperiencewithWilson,noneofthesecriticismsprovedaccurate.Tobe

sure,anyLabourPartyleaderhastotakeaccountoftheviewsoftheleftwingof

hisparty.NorwashethefirstBritishPrimeMinistertopresenthimselfasa

specialapostleofpeacewiththeEast—HaroldMacmillan,afterall,hadgained

himselfthesobriquetofSuperMacbyshowingupinMoscowattheheightofthe

Berlincrisispreachingconciliationandwearinganastrakhanhat.Inmy

experience,WilsonwasasincerefriendoftheUnitedStates.Hisemotionalties,

likethoseofmostBritons,wereacrosstheoceansandnotacrosstheChannelin

thatregionwhichinBritainissignificantlycalled“Europe.”Hehadspentmuch

timeintheUnitedStates;hesincerelybelievedintheAnglo‐American

partnership.ItwasnottheatricstoinviteNixon,ashedid,toattendaCabinet

meeting—anunprecedentedhonorforaforeigner.AsforWilson’sreliability,Iam

innopositiontojudgehisconductontheBritishsce ne.WiththeUnitedStatesI

alwaysfoundhimamanofhisword.Herepresentedacuriousphenomenonin

Britishpolitics:hisgenerationofLabourPartyleaderswasemotiona llycloserto

theUnitedStatesthanweremanyleadersoftheConservativeParty.TheTories

seemedtofindthelossofphys icalpreeminencetotheUnitedStatesrankling,

especiallyafterwhattheyconsideredourbetrayaloverSuez.



ThoughtrainedatOxford,wherehehadtaughteconomicsforseveral

years,Wilsonhadalmostnointerestinabstractideas.Hewasfascinatedbythe

manipulationofpoliticalpower;herelishedtheenterpriseofsolvingdefinable

problems.Longer‐rangeobjectiveselicitedfromhimonlythemostcursory

attention.Hesawnosenseinplanning,becausehehadcompleteconfidencethat

hismanyskillswouldseehimthroughanytightspot.Wilsonhadanextraordinary

memorythatenabledhimtorecalltheexactpositiononapageofasentencehe

hadreadmanyyearsbefore.Itwasaskillhedelight edinshowingoff;he

exhibitedalmostequalskillinfindingopportunitiestodoso.Hewaspersona lly

rathercold,though—notunlikeNixon—touchinglyeagerforapproval,especially

fromthoseherespected.Thiscategorygenerallyincludedmenofpoweror

academics;heprizedespeciallyhiscloserelationshipswithAmericanPresidents.

EarlyonhesuggestedtoNixonthattheycalleachotherbytheirfirstnames.A

fish‐eyedstarefromNixonsquelchedthisidea.Buttheincidentdidnotchange

Wilson’sfriendlyattitudetowardtheUnitedStates.Ipersonallylikedhim;he

neverletusdown.



Hiscolleague,ForeignSecretaryMichaelStewart,wasadifferent

personality.Well‐meaning,slightlypedantic,Stewartdelightedinmoral

disquisitionsthatcoulddriveNixontodistraction.Hehadbeenaschoolmaster,

andshowedit,beforebecomingfirstMinisterofEducationandthenForeign

Secretary.Likemanywhocamelateinlifetointernationalresponsibility,heacted

asifitconsistedoftheproclamationoftheoreticalmaxims.Stewart,however,

wasdedicatedbyconvictiontothecloserelationshipbetweenourcountries.

Despitehismanydoubts,hedefendedourpositioninVietnaminadebateatthe

OxfordUnionwithmorevigorandskillthanwasexhibitedbymanyofthe

Americanswhohadmadethedecisiontosendourtroopsthere;henever

expressedhisqualmstooutsiders.Hewasadecent,solidman,notbrilliantor

farsighted,butofthesturdyqualitytowhichBritainowessomuchofits

greatness.



ThethirdseniorBritisheratdinnerwasSirBurke(laterLord)Trend.

SecretaryoftheCabinet.Hisofficeisaspowerfulasitisanonymous.Aseniorcivil

servantwhoremainsinplacethroughallchangesof administration,heprepares

theminutesofCabinetmeetings,supervisesthepermanentcivilservice

machinery,andrendersthedisinterestedadviceofdecadesofaccumulated

experience.Theinfluenceinherentinthispositionwasusedwithspecial

effectivenessbyitsincumbent.BurkeTrendwasaslightandscholarlyman,witha

twinkleinhiseyeandamannerthatproclaimedbothwisdomanddiscretion.He

unobtrusivelysteereddiscussionawayfromshoalswhichheknewhadwrecked

earlierimpetuousadventures.HeskillfullymadetheCabinetministersheserved

appearmorecompetentthantheycouldpossiblybe.Hewasamanofgenerous

spirit.Hiseruditionandadvice wereamongthebenefitsto usofthe“special

relationship.”



ThedinneratChequersseemedafamilyevening.Thediscussionwasatour

d’horizonofworldaffairs,beguninthepaneleddiningroomandcontinuedover

brandyinthefamousLongGallery.Menwhowouldhavetosettletheircountries’

futuresforthenextyearstookoneanother’smeasureandwereonthewholeat

easewiththeresults.



NixonlatercalledmetohissuiteatClaridge’storeviewtheday’sevents.

ThedayhadstartedattheNATOCouncilinBrusselsandhadendedatthehome

oftheBritishPrimeMinister,towhichNixonascribedahistorydatingback

throughthecenturies.IdidnothavethehearttotellhimthatChequershad

performeditscurrentfunctiononlysinceWorldWarI.Hewasexuberant;he

adoredthevestigialceremoniesandwasnewenoughtoittobethrilledatthe

successionofevents.TolandwithAirForceOneonforeignsoil,tobegreetedbya

KingandthenaPrimeMinister,toreviewhonorguards,tovisitChequers—allthis

wastheculminationofhisyouthfuldreams,theconceptionofhighoffice,

seeminglyunattainableforapoor,somewhatresentfulyoungmanfromalittle

towninCalifornia.Itallproducedoneofthefewoccasionsofnearlyspontaneous

joyIwitnessedinmyacquaintancewiththiswithdrawnandelusiveman.Though

theday’sdiscussionhadresolvednograndissues,Nixonlovedphilosophical

conversationsthatinvolvedneitherconfrontationsnorhagglingoverdetails.

Nixondesperatelywantedtobetoldhowwellhehaddone.Ashewoulddoonso

manyotheroccasions,heaskedmetorecounthisconspicuousroleintheday’s

eventsoverandoveragain.Hehadgonetobed,andasoccasionallyhappened

whenunderstresshebegantoslurhiswordsorelsestruggletoformthemvery

carefully.Itwaseasytoreassurehim.Althoughthedayhadpresentednotaxing

challenge,hehadconductedhimselfwithdignityandability.



ThenextdayintheCabinetroomat10DowningStreet(theresidenceas

wellastheofficeofthePrimeMinister),alargergrouponbothsidestouchedon

thethemesofthenightbefore.ThemaintopicswereBritain’sdecisiontorenew

itsapplicationtotheCommonMarket,thefutureofNATO,andthecourseof

East‐Westrelations.TheBritishministersclaimedthattheysoughtmembershipin

Europelessfortheeconomicthanforthepoliticalbenefitsofthemoreoutward‐

lookingEuropetheywouldhelpbringabout.Nixonagreedwiththisconcept,but

stressedthatitcouldnotbefurtheredbyAmericanhostilitytodeGaulle.He

wouldtrytoimproveAmerica’srelationswithFrance;whilethiswouldnotalter

deGaulle’sbasicvie w sitmightmakehimmoreamenabletopractical

accommodations.TheBritishministersaverredthatthiswasexactlytheirviewas

well—asiftheSoames‐deGaullecontroversyhadneveroccurred.



ThediscussionofNATOrevealedonceagaintheambivalencesofthe

AtlanticAlliance.EveryoneagreedwithNixon’sassessmentthattheSovietUnion

wasclosingthenucleargapandthatwewoulddowellinthefaceof

Congressionalpressurestopreservethenewdefenseprogramswewerestarting.

ButtherewasnowillingnesstodrawtheobviousconclusionthatEuropean

defenseshadtobestrengthened.WilsonarguedthatNATOrequiredanew

strategicdoctrine;hedoubtedthatanyEuropeancountrywaspreparedto

undertakeamajorincreaseinitsdefenseexpendituresforfearthattheUnited

Stateswouldthenreduceitscommitment.Wilsonleftittoustofigureoutwhat

couldbethesignificanceofanewstrategicdoctrinenotembodiedinnewforces.



MichaelStewartcontributedwhatwasbecomingthestandardEuropean

theme.OurnegotiationwiththeSovietUnion,especiallyonstrategicarms

limitation,wasessential.Theyounggenerationwouldnolo ngersupportthe

AtlanticAlliancesolelyasaninstrumentfordefense;itwasessentialfortheunity

oftheWestthattheyseeinitalsoavehiclefordétente.Hewasright,buthe