Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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therebyrevealedtheprofoundambivalenceofourEuropeanallies.Intimesof

risingtension,theyfearedAmericanrigidity;intimesofrelaxingtension,they

dreadedaUS‐Sovietcondominium.Theyurgedustobefirm,thenofferedtheir

mediationtobreaktheresultingdeadlock.Theyinsistedthatweconsultwith

thembeforewedidanything,buttheywantedthefreedomandautonomyto

pursuetheirowndétentediplomacywithoutrestraint.Ifwewereperceivedto

blockdétente,wewouldlosethesupportofourWestEuropeanallies,whowould

thenspeeduptheirowncontactswiththeEast,withnocoordinatedstrategy;

theywouldbetooweaktoresistsimultaneousdomesticandSovietpressures.

Wefoundourselvesintheparadoxicalpositionthatwewouldhavetotakea

leadershiproleinEast‐WestrelationsifwewantedtoholdtheAlliancetogether

andestablishsomegroundrulesforEast‐Westcontacts.Butifwemovedtoo

rapidlyorraisedunwarrantedhopes,wewouldundermineourcaseforthe

militarystrengththatwastheonlysafebasisonwhichtodealwiththeSoviet

Union.Itwasaproblemthatwouldremainlongaftertheparticipantsinthe

DowningStreetdiscussionhadallleftoffice.



TherewasaluncheonatBuckinghamPalacewithQueenElizabeth.I

thoughtshehadbeenwronglystereotypedasrathersto dgy.Shehasanimpish

witandsheimpressedmewithherknowledgeofworldaffairsandherinsight

intothepersonalitiesinvolved.Intheafternoon,thePresidentspoketothe

personneloftheUnitedStatesEmbassyandmetwithagroupofBritisheditors

andintellectuals.



TheeveningwasnotableforshowingasideofNixonbarelyknowntothe

public.Duringthespringof1968,HaroldWilsonhadcommittedtheextraordinary

misjudgmentofbettingonaDemocraticvictory;hehadthereforeappointedJohn

Freeman,anoldfriendofHubertHumphrey’s,asAmbassadortoWashington.It 

threatenedtobeanearlydisastrousdecision.FreemanhadbeenaLabour

ministerontheleftoftheparty.Hehadresignedinarowovergovernment

healthchargesandgoneontomakeanameforhimselffirstasatelevision

interviewer,theneditoroftheleftweeklyNewStatesman,andBritain’sHigh

CommissionertoIndia.WhileeditoroftheStatesmanFreemanhadcelebrated

Nixon’sdefeatinCaliforniabycongratulatingAmericans onremoving“amanof

noprinciple whatsoeverexceptawillingnesstosacrifice everythinginthecause

ofDickNixon.”WhenNixonwontheelectionsevenmonthsafterFreeman’s

appointment,Wilsonwasstuckwithhisembarrassingchoice.Tohiscredit,Wilson

refusedtochangeambassadors.Nixonwasoutraged.Fromthebeg inningofhis

Administration,hesworethathewouldhavenothingtodowithFreeman.Hewas

reinforcedbyGeneralEisenhower,whotoldhiminmypresenceinJanuarythat

Freeman’sappointmentwasaninsultnotonlytoNixonasapersonbuttothe

Presidency.ButsinceitwasunthinkablethatwewoulddeclareaBritish

Ambassadorpersonanongrata,itseemedtherewasnothingleftforNixonbutto

makeFreeman’sambassadorialtenureasdifficultandawkwardaspossible.There

wasnodoubtthathewascapableofdo ingso.Ouradvancemenrequested

WilsontoremoveFreemanfromtheguestlistforthePresident’sdinnerat10

DowningStreet.Wilsoncourageouslyrefuse dandweallapproachedtheevening

withtrepidation.



ButNixoncouldastonish.Attheendofthedinner,herosetomakeatoast.

LookingsquarelyatFreeman,whosatontheoppositesideofthetable,Nixon

said:“Somesaythere’sanewNixon.Andtheywonderifthere’sanewFreeman.I

wouldliketothinkthatthat’sallbehindus.Afterall, he’sthenewdiplomatand

I’mthenewstatesman,trying todoourbestforpeaceintheworld.”



Theimpactwaselectric.Wilsoncalledthetoastthemostgracioushehad

heardat10DowningStreet.HewroteNixonanoteonhismenu.“Youcan’t

guaranteebeingborna Lord.Itispossible—you’veshownustobeborna

gentleman.”TheusuallyimperturbableFreemanwasclosetotears.Thuswas

bornamissiontoWashingtonthatprovedaspectacularsuccess.JohnFreeman

wasoneofthemosteffectiveambassadorsIeverdealtwith.Thereasonforthis

wasnotsosimple.Hisstylewasunpropitious.Freemaneschewedallflattery;he

metsociallyonlythoseherespected;hemadelittleefforttoturnhisEmbassy

intoafashionablesalon.Whenhehadamessagetodeliver,heprefaceditwitha

veryformalstatementthathewasspeakingunderinstructions.ButFreemanwas

preparedtogobeyondhisinstructionstoexpresspersonalviews.Sincehewasa

manofsuperbintelligenceandutterintegrity,thissoonprovedinvaluable.He

hadashrewdgeopoliticalmindand,asitturnedout,rathersharedour

philosophyofforeignrelat ions.IthoughtsohighlyofFreeman’sjudgmentthatI

frequentlyconsultedhimonmattersoutsidehisofficialpurview;ononeortwo

occasions,IlethimreadearlydraftsofPresidentialspeeches,tappinghistalents

asaneditor.HehadeveryrighttoreportallhisconversationstohisPrime

Minister;healmostcertainlydidso.Buttheintimacyandtrustofthe“special

relationship”weremeantpreciselyforsuchcordialcollaboration.



ForhispartNixoncamefirsttotrust,thentolikeFreeman.Freemanwas

theonlyAmbassadorinvitedtotheWhiteHouseforasocialoccasionduring

Nixon’sfirstterm.Healsobecameoneofmyclosestfriends;thatfriendshiphas

survivedbothourtermsofoffice.Iconsideritoneofthegreatestrewardsofmy

publicservice.



SotheLondontripendedwithaspecialbonusofgoodwill.Ithadexposed

moreambivalencesthanitsolved.Butasintended,itlaidthebasisforfruitful

collaborationlater.



<<Contents>>

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****



BonnandBerlinandtheEnigmaofGermany 



urnextstopwasBonn.ThesituationoftheFederalRepublicofGermanywas

morecomplex.Germanpoliticswereinpreelectionfluxandwearrived

duringanincipientBerlincrisis.TheWestGermanPresident,alargelyceremonial

figure,isselectedbyaspecialassemblyoftheBundestagorrepresentativesof

thestates(Länder).Onallprioroccasionsthissessionwasheldintheold

ReichstagbuildinginWestBerlin. ThiswastoemphasizeBonn’sclaimto

representthecontinuit yofthelegitimateGermanstate.TheSovietsandtheir

EastGermanassociateshadpreviouslyignoredthisimpliedchallenge;by1969

theyfeltstrongenoughtomakeanissueofit.Theyprotes tedtheelectoral

meetinginBerlinonthegroundthatWestBerlinwasnotlegallypartofthe

FederalRepublic.Theystartedharassingtheaccessroutesforthefirsttimesince

1962.

O



ThiswasboundtocauseprofoundanxietyinBonn.Berlin’svulnerability

hadbecomeproverbial.TherewasuncertaintyabouthowthenewAdministration

wouldreact.TherewasapervasiveuneasecausedinpartbyGermany’sexposed

position,inpartbypolicydisputeswiththetwoadministrationsprecedingus.

BonnhaddisagreedwiththeMcNamaraemphasisonnon‐nuclearregional

defense,fearingthatitmighttemptSovietaggression.BonnsawintheNuclear

Non‐ProliferationTreatya clearexampleofdiscriminationagainstitinthenuclear

field.BonnresentedAmericanpressurestopayforthestationingofAmerican

forcesonGermansoil.TwoChancellors—KonradAdenauerandLudwigErhard—

hadseentheirdeparturehastenedbytheircontroversieswiththeKennedyand

Johnsonadministrations.



Allthisreflectedtheshakypsychologicalpositionoftheseeminglyso

powerfulnewGermanstate.Defeatedintwowars,bearingthestigmaoftheNazi

past,dismemberedanddivided,WestGermanywasaneconomyinsearchof

politicalpurpose.TherewasnotinBonnthatBritishself‐confidencebornof

centuriesofuninte rruptedpoliticalevolutionandimperialglory.Bonnitself,

chosenasthenewcapitalfo rthepersonalconvenienceofthefirstpostwar

Chancellor(itwasclosetothesmalltownwhereAdenauerlived),andembodying

noprevioustraditionofgovernment,symbolizedtheprecariousnessofGermany’s

postwarresurrection.TheFederalRepublicwaslikeanimposingtreewithshallow

roots,vulnerabletosuddengustsofwind.



Thetenuousnessofitspositionwasreflectedinthesenseofinsecurityof

itsleaders.Adenauer,atrulygreatman,hadconsideredithisprimarydutyto

restoreforGermanyareputationforreliability.Heresolutelyrejectedmany

temptationstoexploitGermany’sopportunitiesformaneuverbetweenEastand

West.Heresistedtheaccusationsofhisdomesticoppositionthathispro‐Western

coursethreatenedtheprospectsforGermanreunification.Hedisdainedthe

occasionalblandishmentsfromtheEast.Instead,hesoughttoembedtheFederal

RepublicinEurope,andEuropeintheAtlanticAlliance,sofullythatthe

nationalismwhichhadproducedGermany’sdisasterswouldneveragainhavethe

opportunitytoinfecthispeople.



Adenauersucceededdramatically.Adoze nyearsafterthecreationofthe

FederalRepublic,itspro‐WesternorientationwasnolongeradomesticGerman

issue.Theopposition,whichonlyyesterdayhadurgedaneutralistGermany

equipoisedbetweenEastandWest,haddramaticallychangeditsprogramand

wasnowcompetingwiththegovernmentinprotestingitsallegiancetoWestern

tieseveninthemilitaryfield.Byatwistoffate,thebrightyoungmenwhoranthe

KennedyAdministrationchosethismomenttourgegreaterflexibilitytowardthe

Eastonthemanwhohadplacedsomuchvalueonsteadinessandreliabilityand

whohadjustaccomplishedthetourdeforceofbringingaboutanational

consensusbehindhispolicyofcloseAtlanticties.Thishelpedproduceadomestic

upheavalinGermanyintheSixtiesandareversalofroles.TheSocialDemocratic

opposition,whichadecadeearlierhadsoughttotapthelatentGerman

nationalismandhadopposedAdenauer’spro‐Westernorientation, nowcriticized

thegovernmentforjeopardizingtheAmericanconnection.Thestill‐governing

ChristianDemocratsclungrigidlytothemaximsoftheFifties.Theirnear

obsessionwithcontinuityprovokedtheimpatienceofanAmerican

Administrationeagertoturnoveranewleaf,convincedofthevalidityofits

GrandDesigns,andonthewholemorecomfortablewithleftistoratleast

reformistgroupsthanwiththeChristianDemocraticconservativeswhohadbuilt

postwarEurope.



ThustheinherentdilemmasofGermany’spostwarpoliciesweremade

explicit.AloneamongtheEuropeanpowerstheFederalRepublichadunfulfilled

nationalaims.Thisaspirationtoreunificationwasexpressedinarefusaltodeal

withtheEastGermanregimeoreventomaintaindiplomaticrelationswithany

governmentthatdid.(Thiswastheso‐calledHallsteinDoct rine.)Butnoother

EuropeangovernmentsharedthisGermanaim.ForallofthemaunitedGermany

evokedoldnightmaresofGermanhegemony;theysharedClemenceau’s

witticismthatsuchwashisaffectionforGermanythathewantedtwoofthem.

Theyknew,moreover,thatGermanunitywasachievable,ifat all,onlythrougha

massiveshowdownwiththeSovietUnion.Thusaninevitablegulfexisted

betweentheFederalRepublic’sproclaimedgoalofGermanunityandtheactions

itcouldtaketoimplementit.AndthisgulfenabledtheSovietUniontopressWest

Germanyinperiodicconfrontat ionsoverBerlin,whichwereatleastpartially

designedtobringabouttheFederalRepublic’sacquiescenceinthestatusquoand

toforceitsNATOalliestodissociatethemselvesfromitsnationalaspirations.



Exposedonthefrontlineofa dividedEurope,subjecttorepeated

pressuresfromtheEast,conscious ofthedeepresidueofdistrustintheWest,

painedbyitsunfulfillednationalaims,WestGermany’sleaderssawinthe

Americanconnectiontheiranchortowindward.Theydidnot aspiretoarolein

globalaffairs.Theylackedtheself‐assurancetoseektoinfluenceourpolicyona

widerscale.Theiraimwasmoremodest:tomakecertainthattheycouldcount

onusfordefenseandthattherewouldbenodrasticshiftsofpolicytowardthe

EastthatwouldleaveGerma nyexposedeitherphysicallyorpsychologically. 



Ourboisterouspoliticalprocessthereforehadatendencyto disquietthe

WestGermans.Theperiodicadventofnewadministrationsloudlyproclaiming

newapproachesortheobsolescenceofpreviouspoliciesraisedthespecterthat

atsomefutureturnofthewheelwouldcomethedreadedAmerican

disengagementfromEurope.



Nixon’smissiontorestoreconfidenceandstabilityinBonnwasespecia lly

opportunesince,theBerlincrisisnotwithstanding, Germanpoliticswerein

transition.AdenauerhadresignedasChancellorinOctober1963andhadbeen

succeededbyErhard,thentremendouslypopularasthearchitectoftheGerman

“miracle”ofeconomicrecovery.ButasAdenauerhadpredicted,Erhard’s

economiccompetencewasnotmatchedinpolitics.Thegoverningcoalitionof

ChristianDemocratsandFreeDemocratsfellapart;in1966,anewso‐called

GrandCoalitionwasformedbetweenChristianDemo cratsandSocialDemocrats,

withKurtGeorgKiesingerasChancellorandWillyBrandtasViceChancellorand

MinisterofForeignAffairs.



ItprovedtobeafatefuldecisionforthemoderatelyconservativeChristian

Democrats,whohaddominatedtheentirepostwarperiod.TheSocialDemocrats

hadlanguishedinanoppositionthatthrea tenedtobecomepermanent.The

principalreasonwasthatenoughvotersfeltthatthisparty—despiteitshonorable

democraticrecord—wastheheiroftoomanyradicaltraditionstobeentrusted

withtheresponsibilitiesofgovernment.TheGrandCoalition,engineeredbythe

brilliantSocialDemocraticstrategistHerbertWehner,resolvedtheissueof

whetherinfacttheSocialDemocratswerefittogovern;theirmereparticipation

ingovernmentfinallygavethemenoughadditionalvotestowinelectoralvictory

towardtheendof1969.Painfulthoughthemiscalculationthatproducedthe

GrandCoalitionprovedfortheChristianDemocrats,itwasagreatboonto

democracyinGermany.ItdemonstratedthattheSocialDemocratswereinfacta

responsibledemocraticparty;thispreventedinGermanytheradicalizationor

polarizationofpoliticallifethatwasendemictosomanyotherEuropean

countries.



Butthisoutcomewasstilljustaroundthecorner.Thegovernmentthat

welcomedusinBonn,despiteitsexaltedtitleofGrandCoalition,wasdeeply

divided.Itsleadingfigureswouldwithinmonthsbecontestinganelectionagainst

eachother;almosteverythingsaidduringourvisitreflectedacarefuljockeying

forposition.ChancellorKiesinger,[Kiesinger’sfateshowshowmuchpoliticalcareerscan

turnonaccidents.IntheelectionscominginSeptember,Kiesingerreceivedthesecondlargest

popularvoteeverobtainedbyaChristianDemocrat.Butfortheonlytimeinthepostwarperiod

atinyneo‐Nazipartycontestedtheelectionanddeprivedhim,throughaquirkoftheGerman

electorallaw,ofjustenoughseatsforamajority.ThisenabledtheSocialDemocratsandthe

FreeDemocratstoformacoalitionandcondemnKiesinger’sparty,whichhadthelargest

numberofseats,toopposition.Hetherebycrossedthatthindividinglinebetweenbeinghailed

asthemasterpoliticianandbeingscornedasthefailedleaderwhosepartylostitspowerduring

histerminoffice.AtthiswritingtheCDUhasyettoregainit.]courteous,grave,stolid,

announcingthebanalwithanairofgreatprofundity,wasinapoliticaltrap

becauseeverydayinofficebuiltuphisprincipalopponent,whoalsohappenedto

beViceChancellor—WillyBrandt.Brandt,hulking,solid,basically

uncommunicativedespitehisheartymanner,suggestedinnosensethathe

consideredhimselfasubordinateoftheChancellor.



WheretheBritishgovernmenthadbeenambivalentontheissuesof

deterrence,détente,Westernunity,andEast‐Westrelations,theGermanleaders

wereindividuallyclearerbutdividedamongthemselves.Bothagreedonfirmness

overBerlin,butthiswasaboutasfarastheharmonywent.Kiesingerfavoreda

stronglinetowardtheEast.Brandtformallyemphasizednuancesof

accommodation.Itrequirednogreatimagination,however,todeducethathe

waspreparedtobitethebulletofEastGermanrecognition.Kiesingerprizedthe

Frenchconnection;BrandtwaspreparedtoemphasizeBritain’sentryintothe

CommonMarket.Kiesinger’sviewswereclosertoNixon’s;Brandt’sweremore

compatiblewiththeconvictionsofourStateDepartment.Theconversationsin

Bonnthusmadeclearthatuntiltheelectioninthefall,Germanpolicywould

largelybeaholdingaction.



ThevisittoWestGermanyconcludedwithatourofBerlin.Hugecrowds

greetedthePresidentialmotorcade,butNixonwasillatease,worriedthatthe

turnoutwouldbecomparedunfavorablywiththatforKennedyin1963.Onlyafter

hewasassuredrepeatedlythatnounfavorablecomparisonscouldpossiblybe

drawndidherelax.(Inotedthattherouteofthemo torcade wasS‐shapedsothat

“crowds”couldshuttleeasilyfromonestreettoanother.Iwastoldthatthis

devicehadalsobeenusedduringtheKennedyvisit.)



NixonsoughttoheadoffanotherBerlincrisisbystakingtheprest igeofthe

PresidencyearlyinhistermunmistakablyonBerlin.Hedidsoinaneloquent

speechattheSiemensfactory:“FourPresidentsbeforemehaveheldtothis

principle,andItellyouatthistimeandinthisplacethatI,too,holdfasttothis

principle:Berlinmustremainfree.Idonotsaythisinanyspiritofbravadoor

belligerence.Iamsimplystatinganirrevocablefactofinternationallife.“



<<Contents>>



****



RomeInterlude



talywasournextstop.Itwasadramaticchangefromthedisciplinedformality

ofBerlintotheexuberantchaosoftheRomeairport.Inthehappyconfusion,

SecretaryofStateRogerswastakenofftoreviewthehonorguarduntila petrified

advancemanrecoveredfromhisshockandreplacedhimwiththePresident.After

thateverythingransmoothly,ifalwaysalongaprecipice.



ThiswasthefirstofmanyvisitsIwastomaketoItalyduringmytermin

office.Ihavealwayslovedthestarkbeautyofthecountryandtheextraordinary

humanityofitspeople.ButeveryvisitconfirmedthatItalyfolloweddifferent

politicallawsandhadadifferentconceptoftheroleofthestatefromthatofthe

restofWesternEurope.PerhapsItaliansweretoocivilized,tooimbuedwiththe

worthoftheindividualtomakethetotalcommitmenttopoliticalgoalsthatfor

overacenturyandahalfhaddriventherivalriesandambitionsoftheother

countriesofEurope.NodoubtItaly’sdomesticproblemsclaimedsomuchofthe

attentionofthetopleader shipthatforeignpolicyplayedasecondaryrole.Then

therewasthefactthatRomeasacapitalwaslessthefocusofanational

consciousnessthanofanhistoricaltradition.Ithadbeenthegovernmentalcenter

ofanancientempire.Foramillenniumandahalfafterward,itwasthecapitalof

thePapalstates—indeed,theQuirinalePalace,nowhousingItaly’sPresident,had

beenthesummerresidenceofthePopeuntil1871.IncontrasttootherEuropean

capitals,RomewasnottheimpetusforItaly’sunification;rather,itwasaddedto

Italyadecadeafterthestatehadcomeintoexistence.TheItaliangovernment

movedtothecityofthePope;thePapacyremainedthecentralinstitutionof

Rome.



Whateverthereason,eachvisitleftmewiththefeelingthatitsprimary

purposewasfulfilledbyourarrivalattheairport.ThissymbolizedthattheUnited

StatestookItalyseriously;itproducedphotographicevidencethatItalianleaders

werebeingconsulted.Thisachieved,Italianministersactedasiftheyweretoo

worldly‐wisetopretendthattheirviewsoninternationalaffairscoulddecisively

affectevents.



Duringmyperiodinoffice,theofficeofPrimeMinisteralternatedbetween

MarianoRumorandAldoMoro,withanoccasionalbriefspellforEmilioColombo.

TheleaderwhowasnotPrimeMinisterwouldthenserveasForeignMinister.

Rumorexudedfriendliness,goodwill,indeedeagernesstoplease.Hewas

obviouslyamanagerofpartymachinerywhosurfacedwhentemperatures

neededloweringanddispensedgoodwillamongthevariousChristianDemocratic

factions.Colombowasanintellectual.Polite,thoughtful,moreofanexpertthana

leader,heseemedtorisetothetopwhenthefactionsweredeadlockedanda

caretakerPrimeMinisterwasneededwhowouldnottiltthebalanceinany

directionuntilanewadjustmenthadbeennegotiated.Morowasclearlythemost

formidable.Hewasasintelligentashewastaciturn;hehadareputationof

superbintelligence.MyonlyevidenceforthiswastheByzantinecomplexityofhis

sentencestructure.ButthenIhadasoporificeffectonhim;moreoftenthannot

hefellasleepinmeetingswithme;Iconsidereditasuccesstokeephimawake.

InternationalaffairsclearlydidnotinterestMoro.Hewasthepartystrategistpar

excellence,whowouldengineernewdeparturesindomesticpolicywith

extraordinarysubtlety;foreignpolicywasaportfolioheassumedasapower

base,nevertopursueasavocation.ObviouslytheleadersofItalywerechosento

reflectdomesticnecessitiesandabovealltheinternalbalanceoftheChristian

DemocraticParty.



ThePresidentsIservedneverfullyunderstoodthis.Sufferingfromthe

illusionthattheItalianPrimeMinisterpossessedexecutiveauthority,they

attempteddiscussionsimplyingspecificdecisions.NoItalianPrimeMinisterImet

encouragedsuchanattitude,whichintheirviewcouldonlyresultfromacrude

attemptatflatteryorfromignorance.Theyknewtheyheadedunstablecoalitions;

theyhadtherighttopresideatCabinetmeetingsbutnottoissuebinding orders.

Decisionsweremadebyaconsensusthatincludedmanypeoplenotinthe

government.IndiscussionswitheitherPrimeMinistersorForeignMinisters,

domesticpoliticsremainedthemainpreoccupation.TheItalianForeignOffice

includedsomeofthemostdistinguishedandthoughtfuldiplomatsIhave

encountered.Still,onesometimescouldnotavoidtheimpressionthattodiscuss

internationalaffairswiththeirForeignMinisterwastoriskboringhim.



Therewas,asithappened,everyreasonforconcernaboutItaly’sdomestic

predicament.TheChristianDemocraticPartyhadgovernedItalysincethewar.It

wasfashionabletosaythatithadnotsolvedItaly’sfundamentalproblemsand

thatinefficiencywaswidespreadandcorruptionrampant.Butthiswasonlypartly

true.Italyhadmaderemarkableeconomicprogress;itseconomyhadgrownatan

averagerateof5.5percentoverthepreviousdecade.But,aseverywhere,the

processofdevelopmentproduceddislocationsthatstrainedpoliticalstability.

SouthItalianfarmershadalwaysbeenverypoor;theyweremorallybuttressedby

traditionandtheChurch.Economicdevelopmenttransplantedthesemenand

womentothefactoriesoftheNorth.Inthismassivereadjustment,theirprincipal

spiritualsupportturnedouttobetheCommunistParty,whichreceivedthemat

therailroadstationandsustainedthemintheirrootlessness.IftheCommunist

voteremainedconstantinItalydespiterapideconomicgrowth—andagainst

everyfashionabletheory—thiswasinlargepartbecausethePartywas

consideredbymanyastheguarantoroftheirsecurityandbecausethe

governmentinRomefailedtoestablishthehumancontactsodecisiveinItaly.



TheendlessAmericanobsessionwithinstitutionalsolutionscompounded

theproblem.Formostofthepostwarperiod,Italyhadbeengovernedbya

coalitionofChristianDemocratsandmoderatepartiesoftherightandleft.The

SocialDemocratsrepresentedtheleftwingofthegoverninggroup;their

distinguishingfeaturewastheirrefusaltoworkwiththeCommunists.The

oppositionwastheCommunistssupportedbyleft‐wingSocialists,andthe

MonarchistsandFascistsontheright.In1963,theUnitedStatesdecidedto

supporttheso‐calledopeningtotheleft.Itsaimwasacoalitionbetweenleft‐

wingSocialistsandChristianDemocrats,thereby,itwashoped,isolatingthe

Communists.UnderconsiderableAmericanpressure,thiscoalitionwasinfact

negotiated.



Theresults,thoughdelayedforoveradecade,werepreciselytheopposite

ofwhatwasintended.Withthenewcoalition,theSocialDemocraticPartylostits

principalreasonforexistence— itsroleasnon‐Communistoppositionontheleft.

Itdeclinedwitheveryelectionintoprogressiveinsignificance.Thefree‐enterprise