Jones G.S., Claeys G. The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
Biographies
GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD
1805–79. American abolitionist, journalist and reformer, born in Newburypor t, Mas-
sachusetts. Garrison had little formal education and supplemented this with newspaper
work and later journalism. He moved to Baltimore in 1829 to assist Benjamin Lundy in
publishing The Genius of Universal Emancipation,andin1831 he launched the influential anti-
slavery newspaper The Liberator. This journal stood for the immediate and total abolition of
slavery and was published for thirty-five years. In 1833 he founded the American Antislavery
Society of which he was president from 1843–65. Garrison also campaigned fervently for
woman suffrage and prohibition.
r
Dumond 1961;Kraditor1969.
GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON
1764–1832. Born in Breslau, Gentz entered the public service of Prussia in 1786,butin
1802 exchanged into that of Austria. From 1812 he was Metternich’s secretary, and served as
secretary-general at the Congresses of Vienna, Aachen, Laibach, Troppau and Verona, where
he consistently supported the old orders against the new. In 1794 he translated Mallet du Pan’s
Consid
´
erations sur la R
´
evolution en France. Gentz’s political thought – expressed in such works
as
¨
Uber den Ursprang und Charakter des Krieges gegen die Franz
¨
osische Revolution – stressed the
importance of the balance of power, both within states and without. An Anglophile, Gentz
praised the British constitution for its internal equilibrium. He attacked the democratic
concept of equality, in favour of a stable balance between estates. Consistent with his work
with Metternich, Gentz also sought a European balance of power, condemning the notion
of the individual nation in favour of European-wide alliances.
r
Beiser 1992;Droz1949; Godechot 1972; Kontler 1999;Patern
`
o 1993;Reiff1912.
GEORGE, HENRY
1839–97. A journalist and politician, George was born in Philadelphia. He left school at
thirteen to try to make a living and worked as a sailor prior to moving to California to work
as a printer and typesetter. It was this experience of life that led him to question in his works
the nature of and reasons for poverty. By the 1860s he had entered into journalism, writing
on political economy. His most famous book is Progress and Poverty (1879) which argued
that all forms of taxation except that on land should be abolished, since land ownership
was invariably a function of monopoly power. George’s work had a great influence on the
growth of the socialist movement in Britain.
r
Andelson 1979.
GIERKE, OTTO VON
1841–1921. He studied at the University of Berlin, where he succeeded Georg Beseler to
his Chair in 1887, and served in the wars against Austria and France. He wrote widely on
legal and constitutional history and natural law, his masterpiece being Das Genossenschaftsrecht
(1868–1913), which interpreted the history of German custom and law in terms of his theory
of corporation, fellowship, and community and legal fictions. He also wrote on Althusius
and early modern natural law theories.
r
Gierke 1990;Lewis1935.
GOBINEAU, JOSEPH ARTHUR, COM TE DE
1816–82. French diplomat, writer, ethnologist and social thinker whose controversial and
long-since discredited theories of racial determinism and miscegenation were first little read,
but came to have significant impact on anti-Semitic, Aryan and other anthropological and
political theories in late nineteenth-century Europe. Gobineau came from an aristocratic
954
Biographies
background and ser ved as secretary to the writer and statesman Alexis de Tocqueville during
the latter’s brief term as foreign minister in 1849. Gobineau also had his own diplomatic
career, which took him to posts in Bern, Hanover, Frankfurt, Tehran, Rio de Janeiro and
Stockholm. He wrote short stories, works of history and literary criticism, but is best known
for his Essai sur l’In
´
egalit
´
e des Races Humaines (Essay on the Inequality of Human Races) (4
vols. 1853–5).
r
Gobineau 1970.
GODWIN, WILLIAM
1756–1836. Born in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, the son of a Congregationalist minister,
Godwin was educated by the strict Calvinist sect of the Sandemanians. After a brief period
as a minister, he turned to writing and publishing. His most famous philosophical and
political work was Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793), which insisted that men and
women had moral and rational capacities that made government unnecessary. This view
was also reflected in his novels The Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794), St. Leon (1799)and
Fleetwood (1805). In 1797, Godwin mar ried Mary Wollstonecraft, who died the same year
giving birth to a daughter, Mary. He remarried in 1801 and in 1805 established a small
publishing business specialising in children’s books.
r
Claeys 1983, 1984;Clark1977; Marshall 1984; Monro 1953;Philp1986; Rosen 1987; Stafford
1980; Woodcock 1989.
GOUGES, OLYMPE DE
1745–93. Born Marie Gouze to a petit bourgeois family in Montauban, France. After an
unhappy early marriage, de Gouges moved to Paris and became a prolific writer of pamphlets
and plays, on topics ranging from her opposition to slavery to gender equality. Her most
controversial work on the ‘woman question’ was her response to the 1791 Declaration of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the D
´
eclaration des Droits de la Femme et de la Citoyenne
(Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen). She also drafted a civil
contract for the equal rights of men and women in marriage. While she welcomed the
Revolution, her opposition to the execution of Louis XVI led to her own execution in
1793.
r
Scott 1996.
GRAVE, JEAN
1854–1939. Born in the Puy-de-D
ˆ
ome but raised in Paris by working-class parents, Grave
worked as a mechanic and a cobbler before becoming known as the ‘high priest of anarchy’.
He converted to communist anarchism in 1880 and in 1883 he moved to Geneva to take
control of Le R
´
evolt
´
e, founded in 1779 by Kropotkin and others. This journal changed its
name twice in order to avoid prosecution (to La R
´
evolte in 1887;toLes Temps Nouveaux in
1895). Grave’s most famous book, La Soci
´
et
´
e Mourante et l’Anarchie (1893), earned him a two-
year prison sentence. Following Kropotkin during the First World War, Grave campaigned
against Germany and for anarchist suppor t of the Allied war effort, a stance that marginalised
him in the post-war anarchist movement.
r
Maitron 1975; Patsouras 1987; Reynaud-Paligot 1993;Vincent1996.
GREEN, THOMAS HILL
1838–82. Born at Berkin in Yorkshire, Green was the son of a rector. From the age of
fourteen, he a ttended Rugby School before going to Balliol College, Oxford, where he
matriculated in 1855. As an undergraduate, Green was President of the Oxford Union and,
along with A. V. Dicey and James Bryce, a member of the Old Mortality Society. In 1866,
955
Biographies
he became a tutor at Balliol, and in 1878 he won election to the Whyte professorship of
moral philosophy. Green was an active campaigner for temperance reform, and served as
a Liberal town councillor in Oxford. The bulk of his philosophical writings were edited
and published posthumously by R. L. Nettleship in The Works of Thomas Hill Green (3 vols.
1885–8).
r
Brink 2003;Carter2003; De Sanctis 2005; Kelly 2006;Leighton2004;Morrow2007; Nicholson
1990;Plant2006; Richter 1964; Thomas 1987;Tyler2003;Vincent1986;Wempe2004.
GREENE, WILLIAM B.
1819–78. Born in Haverhill, Massachusetts, Greene was educated at West Point and served as
an officer in the Indian and Civil Wars. Graduating from Harvard Divinity School in 1845,
he became an outspoken clergyman in Brookfield, Massachusetts, supporting free speech,
women’s rights and labour reform. He is best known for advocating the elimination of the
state from the economy, a position he outlined in his book Mutual Banking (1850). Along
with Ezra Heywood he founded the New England Labor Reform League in 1869;later
he served as president. During the last decade of his life, he was an influential anarchist
philosopher.
r
Martin 1957; Reichert 1976.
GUIZOT, FRANC¸OIS
1787–1884. Born into a Protestant family of N
ˆ
ımes and educated in Geneva in the revolu-
tionary period and a student of law in Paris under Napoleon, he became a leading liberal
politician as well as historian in Restoration France. Serving in the government at various
times, especially during the July Monarchy after the revolution of 1830, he was in effect
prime minister until his exile in 1848. Guizot also gave acclaimed lectures on civilisation in
Europe and in France. After 1830 he founded the Society of French History, which published
chronicles and records of French institutional history, especially of the medieval communes,
and among his many other works were his laudatory studies of English government and of
representative institutions.
r
Johnson 1963; Kelley 2003; Mellon 1958; Rosanvallon 1985.
HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH
1834–1919. Born in Potsdam in Prussia and educated in Merseburg, Haeckel studied
medicine at W
¨
urzburg and Berlin. His father, the physiologist and anatomist Johannes
M
¨
uller, encouraged his interest in marine biology and in medicine. An encounter with Dar-
win’s On the Origin of Species shifted his interests decisively towards zoology. By 1865 he had
been offered a full professor ship in comparative anatomy at the Zoological Institute in Jena.
His work in the field of comparative embryology led to the theory for which he has became
popularly known. Haeckel’s popular book, Anthropogenie (1874), outlined his evolutionary
ideas which he eventually extended into the realms of psychology and cosmology to arrive at
a metaphysical monistic philosophy of nature. These ideas were summarised in Die Weltr
¨
atsel
(1899), translated as The Riddle of the Universe.
r
Gasman 1971; Kelly 1981.
HALLAM, HENRY
1777–1859. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he practised law in Oxford before
settling in Lincolnshire and turning to a literary career. Though associated with the Whigs
and a supporter of various refor ms, he was not involved in politics. His works included a
survey of the European states in the Middle Ages, an introduction to European literature in
the early modern period, and especially his Constitutional History of England (1827), which
956
Biographies
carried the story from the Tudors down to the accession of George III and which for a long
time remained the standard survey.
r
Lang 1995; Macaulay n.d.b
HALLER, KARL LUDWIG VON
1768–1854. Born in Berne, Switzerland, Haller was the grandson of the poet Albrecht von
Haller. A conservative – sometimes referred to a s ‘the restorer’ – Haller is now mainly
remembered as an intellectual adversary of Hegel (he was sharply attacked in Hegel’s Phi-
losophy of Right). From 1801–6 Haller served as a court secretary in Vienna. From 1806 he
was Professor of Law at the newly formed academy of Berne, and became a member of the
Sovereign Council of Berne. However, in 1821 he converted, sensationally, to Catholicism –
something he described in a ‘letter to his family’ which ran to seventy editions and many
translations – and this led to his dismissal from the Bernese government. His chief political
work was the six-volume Restauration der Staatswissenschaft oder Theorie des nat
¨
urlich-geselligen
Zustandes (1816–34). In it, Haller rejects revolution (and Rousseau’s concept of the social
contract) and constructs a natural and juridical system of government.
r
Breckman 1992;Pinkard2000; Westerholt 1999.
HANSEMANN, DAVID
1790–1864. Born in Finkenwerder (now part of Hamburg), Hansemann was an economist
and politician. Trained in commerce, he wrote a series of memoranda supporting the
development of the railways and a new tax system. Especially significant are those on the
domestic reform of Prussia (1830) and the question of the German and Prussian constitution
(1848, 1850). In 1848 he was made Prussian Finance Minister. From 1848–51 he was head
of the Prussian Bank prior to founding one of the first large German banks, the Berlin
Disconto Company followed by the First Prussian Mortgage Bank in 1862–4.
r
Angermann 1966; Malangr
´
e 1991.
HARRISON, FREDERIC
1831–1923. Reared as an Anglican, Harrison gradually became a convinced adherent of
Comte’s religion of humanity. In his long career as jurist, publicist and widely read man
of letters, he was the most successful propagandist of positivism in England. Author of the
minority report of the Royal Commission on Trades Unions, Harrison was instrumental
in secur ing legal recognition for the unions in the 1870s. He also wrote many articles
on international affairs, consistently opposing England’s imperial expansion. Among his
autobiographical writings, see especially Creed of a Layman (1907)andAutobiographic Memoirs
(2 vols. 1911, with a bibliography of his writings). Some of his more important essays are
collected in National and Social Problems (1908).
r
Adelman 1971; Harrison 1965; Vogeler 1984;Wright1986.
HAZLITT, WILLIAM
1778–1830. Born at Maidstone in Kent and educated at home and at Hackney, Hazlitt
originally intended to follow his father into the Unitarian ministry. He gave up any thoughts
of a clerical career in 1797 and subsequently studied painting; from 1805 he devoted his
energies to literature and philosophy. Like Byron and Shelley, Hazlitt was a strident critic of
post-war legitimism. His political ideas are scattered throughout his voluminous writings.
The Principles of Human Action (1805), Political Essays (1819, collected from the Morning
Chronicle)andThe Spirit of the Age (1825) are particularly important.
r
Brinton 1966; Cook 1981; Deane 1988; Grayling 2000; Mahoney 2002; Thorslev 1989.
957
Biographies
HECKER, FRIEDRICH
1811–81. Born in Eichtersheim, after studying law in Heidelberg and Munich, Hecker
joined the Bavarian Civil Service and became a lawyer in Mannheim in 1838.In1842
he was elected to the Baden Lower Chamber but soon became a radical democrat and
republican under the influence of Gustav von Struve. They organised an unsuccessful armed
rebellion in 1848, to be defeated by the W
¨
urttemberg government troops. Hecker then fled
to Switzerland and later emigrated to the USA, fighting on the side of the Union in the
Civil War. His works include Die Erhebung des Volkes in Baden f
¨
urdieDeutscheRepublik(The
Uprising of the People in Baden for the German Republic) (1848)andReden and Vorlesungen
(Talks and Lectures) (1872).
r
Freitag 1998.
HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH
1770–1831. Born in Stuttgart, Hegel attended the Theological Seminary in T
¨
ubingen,
where he befriended H
¨
olderlin and Schelling. After tutoring in Berne, where he published
an anonymous critique of patriarchal rule, he lectured with Schelling in Jena. In 1801,
he published a defence of Schelling against Fichte’s subjectivism, but by 1807,whenhe
completed his Phenomenology, had distanced himself from his former friend, and reassessed
Fichte’s contribution to modern understandings of freedom. Leaving Prussia after the battle
of Jena, he was successively editor of a newspaper and rector of a secondary school in
southern Germany. He taught at Heidelberg after publishing his Science of Logic (1812–16),
and assumed the chair of philosophy in Berlin in 1818. He published The Philosophy of Right
in 1820.
r
Beiser 1993; Bubner 2003; Pippin 1989, 1997b.
HEINE, HEINRICH
1797–1856. A German lyric poet and journalist, Heine was born in D
¨
usseldorf to Jewish
parents. After failing in the family business and in banking he went to G
¨
ottingen to study law
and gained a doctorate in 1825. He converted to Protestantism to improve his employment
prospects but failed to find the appropriate position and turned to writing. Heine moved
to Paris in 1831 to report for the Allgemeine Zeitung. His works were highly critical of
conservative Germany, supporting the social ideals of the French Revolution, e.g. Religion
and Philosophy in Germany (1833). The Buch der Lieder (1827) established his reputation as a
lyric poet and Reisebilder (4 vols. 1826–31), a description of travels in poetry and prose, was
widely read. He died in Par is in 1856.
HEINZEN, KARL
1809–80. A radical revolutionary, Heinzen was born in Grevenbroich, Germany. He started
to study medicine in Bonn, but was suspended in 1829. Heinzen then ser ved in the Prussian
army prior to working as a civil servant. However he openly criticised the government and
was forced to flee to Switzerland in 1844. He returned to take par t in the 1848 German
Revolution. Heinzen fled Germany in 1849 and immigrated to America as a ‘Forty-Eighter’,
seeing it as an arena for the dissemination of his radical ideas. He edited Der Pionier (1859–
79), championing the abolition of slavery, equal rights for workers and women and penal
reform. His most significant work is Der Mord (Murder) (1849), seen by many as advocating
terrorism.
r
Wittke 1945;Zucker1950.
958
Biographies
HENRION DE PANSEY, PIERRE PAUL NICOLAS
1742–1829. He was a feudal lawyer under the Old Regime, an appeal judge under Napoleon,
and an author who celebrated judicial, constitutional and professional tradition across the
revolutionary interlude. Henrion’s major work was On Judicial Authority (1812).
r
Kelley 1984; Salmon 1995.
HERZEN, ALEXANDER IVANOVICH
1812–70. Born in Moscow, Ivan Iakovlev, Herzen was the chief intellectual of the Russian
‘Remarkable Decade, 1838–48’, advocating a Left Hegelian ‘philosophy of action’. In January
1847 he left for Paris, never to return. He was deeply disillusioned by the revolutionary events
in France, and his book From the Other Shore (1850) echoed this. In 1853, with the help of
Polish
´
emigr
´
es, he founded The Free Russian Press in London and from 1857 published
the periodical Kolokol (The Bell). In a number of booklets, he developed his conception of
‘Russian socialism’, presenting Russia as a country where socialism had better chances than
in bourgeois Europe. In 1863 he supported the Polish uprising and paid for this by a sharp
decline of his influence in Russia.
r
Berlin 1978; Kelly 1998; Malia 1961.
HERZL, THEODOR
1860–1904. Born in Budapest, Herzl studied law in Vienna, working as a journalist and
writer. At first his politics was oriented to German unity; however the rise of popular
anti-Semitism in the early 1890s led him to the view that European societies would never
assimilate Jews. In 1895 he wrote Der Judenstaat, translated and published in English under the
title The Jewish State (1896). In this Herzl argued that Jews must found and possess a territorial
state of their own. He devoted himself from then on to the Zionist cause, establishing the
Congress of Zionists, of which he was president until his death. Herzl relied on diplomatic
connections to the major Western powers and powerful individuals (such as the Rothschilds)
as the best way of realising this goal.
r
Vital 1999.
HESS, MOSES
1812–75. Born in Bonn, Hess studied philosophy but did not graduate. He became involved
in radical and socialist politics, living as a journalist and writer. Hess was a close collaborator
of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and later in his life his ethical concerns came to be
expressed in terms of pantheism and race. He lived in Germany between 1861 and 1863
where there was some resurgence of intellectual, if not popular, anti-Semitism. Strongly
influenced by the success of national movements, Hess advocated the creation of a territorial
state for the Jewish nation in Palestine. He published the series of essays Rome and Jerusalem
(1862). It was, however, only after Hess’ death in Paris that his book and its arguments were
taken up by the Zionist movement.
r
Aviner i 1985.
HOBHOUSE, LEONARD TRELAWNY
1864–1929. Born at St Ives in Cornwall, Hobhouse was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford, where he was president of the Russell Club. His interest in industrial affairs was
apparent in his first book on The Labour Movement (1893). In 1896, he published The Theory
of Knowledge, which was poorly received. Between 1897 and 1902, he worked full time
for the Manchester Guardian, writing extensively about the labour question and the South
African War. These concerns were combined in his 1904 study of Democracy and Reaction.
His sociological work, especially Morals in Evolution, helped secure him the first chair in
959
Biographies
sociology at the University of London, which he held until his death. His best-known work
of political theory both then and now was Liberalism (1911).
r
Clarke 1978; Collini 1979; Freeden 1978; Hobson and Ginsberg 1931;Meadowcroft1995.
HOBSON, JOHN ATKINSON
1858–1940. Born in Derby, Hobson was the son of a local newspaper editor and proprietor.
He was educated at Derby School and Lincoln College, Oxford. In 1889, he wrote a book
with the businessman A. F. Mummery, entitled The Physiology of Industry. A series of under-
consumptionist studies followed in the 1890s, including The Evolution of Modern Capitalism
(1894). Hobson was an active member of the South Place Ethical Society and the Rainbow
Circle. In 1899, he went to South Africa as special correspondent for the Manchester Guardian.
This helped shape his The Psychology of Jingoism (1901) and its successor, Imperialism (1902).
His most significant work of political theory, The Crisis of Liberalism (1909), began as lectures
to the Christian Social Union in London.
r
Allett 1981; Cain 2002;Clarke1978; Freeden 1978, 1990; Gerson 2004a.
HODGSKIN, THOMAS
1787–1869. Born in Chatham, Hodgskin was sent to sea when he was twelve. He became
a naval officer but left service when he got into a dispute concerning military discipline.
After travelling on the continent of Europe and briefly staying in Edinburgh, Hodgskin
moved to London to work on the Morning Chronicle. With I. C. Robertson, he founded
the Mechanics’ Magazine, dedicated to worker self-education, where he published his most
famous work, Labour Defended against the Claims of Capital (1825). This argued that laws and
the state should be eliminated so that the ‘natural laws’ of morality and the market could
operate freely. During the 1830s, he wrote journal ar ticles and became a popular speaker for
Chartist electoral reform. Later, he embraced free trade and wrote for The Economist.
r
Hal
´
evy 1956;Stack1998.
HUGO, GUSTAV VON
1764–1844. Born in Baden, he studied at the University of G
¨
ottingen, took his degree at
the University of Halle, taught law at G
¨
ottingen from 1792, and published a comprehensive
textbook of civil law (1792–1821), in which he presented his historical method. As founder,
before Savigny, of the ‘historical school of law’, he became the target, with Hegel, of Marx’s
early critique of social philosophy.
r
Kelley 1984a, 1990;Whitman1990; Wieacker 1967.
HUMBOLDT, WILHELM VON
1767–1835. Born in Potsdam, the son of an officer, Humboldt was co-founder of the now
Humboldt University of Berlin. He was a great friend of Goethe and in particular Schiller.
He attended G
¨
ottingen University where he studied classical languages and natural sciences
and in 1789, in the company of his tutor, he travelled to revolutionary Paris. From 1802–8
he was a Prussian Ministerial Resident in the Vatican and from 1815–19 was the Prussian
plenipotentiary at the Bundestag in Frankfurt am Main and an envoy in London. After he
was dismissed he concentrated upon linguistic studies. His many works include books on
language and history, in particular his The Limits of State Action (1854 [1792]) which made
an impact on J. S. Mill.
r
Borsche 1990; Petersen 2007; Spitta 2004.
960
Biographies
HYNDMAN, H. M. (HENRY M AYERS)
1842–1921. A writer and politician, Hyndman was born in London and educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge. He studied law for two years before turning to journalism, reporting for
the Pall Mall Gazette.In1869 he decided on a career in politics and stood as an independent
candidate in the 1880 election, but was forced to stand down. In the aftermath he became
fascinated by Lassalle and subsequently Karl Marx and founded the first Marxist political
group in Britain, the Social Democratic Federation in 1884, which became the British
Socialist Party in 1911. His significant works are England for All (1881), an attempt to explain
the ideas of Marx, and Socialism Made Plain (1883), which explained the policies of the Social
Democratic Federation.
JACKSON, ANDREW
1767–1845. An American general, Andrew Jackson was President of the United States from
1829–37. He was born in a backwoods settlement in the Carolinas and at thirteen took part
in the Revolutionary War as a courier for the Continental army and was captured by the
British. After reading law, he settled in Tennessee where he became a successful lawyer and
ultimately entered politics – he was the first elected member from Tennessee to the House
of Representatives. Jackson served as a major-general in the War of 1812, and became a hero
after defeating the British at New Orleans. He lost his first bid for the presidency in 1824 to
John Quincy Adams, but won in 1828 with an overwhelming majority. His presidency has
come to be known as the ‘Jacksonian Democracy’.
r
Blau 1954;Meyers1960; Reynolds 2008;Rogin1975; Schlesinger 1945; Sellers 1991;Wilentz
1982.
JACOBY, JOHANN
1805–77.BorninK
¨
onigsberg, the son of a Jewish merchant, Jacoby studied medicine but
became politically active with the Parisian July Revolution of 1830, engaging himself for
the rest of his life in the struggle to liberate the Polish people, emancipate the Jews and to
overcome Prussian absolutism. He spoke out against Bismarck and as a result spent six months
behind bars. In 1870 he protested against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine for which he
was again imprisoned. In 1872 he joined the Social Democratic Party and was subsequently
elected to the Reichstag but in protest refused to take his seat. His works include Vier Fragen,
Beantwortet von einem Ostpreussen (Four Questions Answered by an East Prussian) (1841)and
Gesammelte Schriften und Reden (Collected Writings and Speeches) (1877).
r
Herzfeld 1938;Jacoby1841;Silberner1976; Weber 1988.
JEFFERSON, THOMAS
1743–1826. Born in Albermarle County, Virginia, Jefferson attended the College of William
and Mary from 1760–2 and then read law from 1762–7. Jefferson entered politics as a
member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1769 and attracted attention by writing
A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774). He became ambassador to France in
1785 and in 1787 published his only major book, Notes on the State of Virginia. Returning
to the United States in 1789, he became secretary of state in the first administration of
George Washington. He was elected vice-president under John Adams in 1796 and in 1800
defeated Adams for the presidency. Jefferson wished to be remembered as the author of the
Declaration of Independence, the Virginia Statute of Religious Liberty, and as the founder
of the University of Virginia.
r
Adams 1986; Banning 1978; Ellis 1997;Levy1963; Malone 1948–81; Matthews 1984;Mayer
1994; McDonald 1976;Onuf1993a, 1993b, 2000; Peterson 1986; Tucker a nd Hendrickson 1990;
Wills 2003.
961
Biographies
JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY
1835–82. Economist and logician, born in Liverpool. At sixteen he entered University
College London from where he later graduated with honours in botany and chemistry. From
1854–9 he was assayer to the Mint in Sydney, Australia. Returning to London he studied
logic under Augustus de Morgan, becoming Professor of Logic at Manchester (1866)and
Professor of Political Economy at London (1876). He introduced mathematical methods into
economics, was one of the first to use the concept of final or marginal utility as opposed
to the classical cost of production theories, and wrote Theory of Political Economy (1871), a
major work in the development of economic thought.
r
Sigot 2002.
KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI M IKHAILOVICH
1766–1826. Born into a wealthy noble family in the province of Simbirsk, Karamazin was
the leading representative of sentimentalism in Russian literature, the official historiographer
of the Russian state, and a conservative political thinker. In 1784 he entered a Masonic lodge
and from 1789–90 he made a European tour which he described in his Letters of a Russian
Traveller.From1802–3 he edited the journal Vestnik Europy (European Messenger) with the
motto ‘Russia is Europe’. In 1811 he presented to Alexander I his Memoir on Ancient and
Modern Russia in which he claimed that the Russian monarch was not entitled to limit his
autocratic power. His History of the Russian State (12 vols. 1816–29) greatly contributed to
the formation of Russian national identity.
r
Leontowitsch 1957;Pipes1959; Walicki 1975.
KAUTSKY, KARL
1854–1938. Born in Prague, the son of a theatre painter, Kautsky joined the Austrian socialists
while a student at the University of Vienna. He moved to Zurich in 1880, where he and
Eduard Bernstein were close associates. But with the beginning of the revisionist controversy,
they became public antagonists. As editor of the theoretical journal, DieneueZeit,which
he founded (1883), Kautsky emerged as the acknowledged expert on Marxist economic and
historical thought. He solidified this status with the publication of Karl Marx’ Oekonomische
Lehren (1887), as the leading author and interpreter of the Erfurt programme (1891)andas
an unyielding defender of orthodox Marxism.
r
Geary 1987; Miller 1964; Pierson 1993;Salvadori1979; Steenson 1978.
KEBLE, JOHN
1792–1866. Keble was an Anglican theologian and poet. He was educated at Oxford and
was a fellow of Oriel College from 1811–23. He was ordained as a deacon in 1815 and as
apriestin1816.From1831–41 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford and from 1836 until
his death he was priest in the parish of Hursley. On 14 July 1833 he preached the Assize
Sermon at Oxford, with the title of ‘National Apostasy’, which is seen as the starting point
of the Oxford Movement. His works include The Christian Year (1827), a volume of hymns
and poetry, Lyra Innocentium: Thoughts in Verse on Children (1846) and a life of Bishop Wilson
(1863). Keble College in Oxford was founded as a memorial to him.
r
Chadwick 1960;Rowlands1989.
KHOMIAKOV, ALEKSEI STEPANOVICH
1804–60. Born in Moscow, Khomiakov was the leading figure in the Slavophile movement.
His main ideological contribution was the elaboration of the concept of sobornost as (allegedly)
a distinctive feature not only of the Orthodox ecclesiology but of the Russian national life as
well. During the Crimean War he advocated the aggressive policy of military pan-Slavism.
962
Biographies
After the war he became involved in the preparation of the emancipation of the peasantry,
suggesting that the peasants should receive only a part of their communal land. He did
not hesitate to stress that the village commune should be preserved on the grounds of its
convenience to the landlords and that in the case of the peasants’ non-compliance with their
obligations it should be possible to expel whole villages to Siberia.
r
Christoff 1961; Gratieux 1939; Walicki 1975.
KOSSUTH, LOUIS (LAJOS)
1802–94. Born into minor Hungar ian nobility, Kossuth was a lawyer and journalist whose
writings made him the most prominent of the critics of the Habsburg government in the
period immediately before 1848. A fine orator, his speech of 3 March 1848 at the Hungarian
Diet helped start the Hungar ian Revolution. He became the leader of the rebellion when
war with the Habsburgs broke out in September 1848.ByApril1849 he supported the
overthrow of Habsburg rule. Once the Hungarian army was defeated by a combination
of Habsburg and Russian armies as well as the mobilisation of non-Magyar nationalities,
Kossuth went into exile. From there he enjoyed great support amongst radical circles and
continued to advocate radical anti-Habsburg policies. He never returned to Austria.
r
Deak 1979.
KROPOTKIN, P
¨
ETR ALEKSEEVICH
1842–1921. A member of an ancient princely family, born in Moscow, Kropotkin was an
outstanding geographer and one of the chief theorists of international anarchism. In 1872 he
joined the populist revolutionary movement and in 1874 he was arrested and imprisoned in
the Peter and Paul Fortress in Petersburg. Two years later he planned a daring escape, which
his friends from outside helped him to put into effect. He settled in Switzerland and in 1879
founded the anarchist journal Le R
´
evolt
´
e. His political philosophy is best expounded in The
Conquest of Bread (1892), Anarchism: Its Philosophy and Ideal (1896)andMutual Aid: A Factor
of Evolution (1902).
r
Avr ich 1967;Cahm1989; Miller 1976; Woodcock 1970; Woodcock and Avakumovic 1971.
LAMARCK, JEAN-BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET
1744–1829. Lamarck was from a military family in France, the youngest of eleven children.
First educated for the priesthood, he enlisted in an infantry regiment, but then became
increasingly interested in plants and produced an important three-volume study of the flora
of France in 1778. A prot
´
eg
´
e of the great naturalist Buffon, Lamarck played a key role in
the reorganisation during the 1790s of the Jardin des Plantes into the French Museum of
Natural History. His publications were wide-ranging, including physics, meteorology and
hydrology and over time he began to formulate new ideas about the transmutation of species.
His transformist theory was first articulated publicly in lectures in 1800 and developed in
Philosophie Zoologique (1809). He died blind and in poverty.
r
Bowler 1983; Corsi and Weindling 1988; Jordanova 1984.
LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE-MARIE-LOUIS DE PRAT DE
1790–1869.BornatM
ˆ
aconnais in Burgundy, Lamar tine was educated in Lyon. Commis-
sioned in the royal bodyguard in 1814 he went into exile with the Bourbons in 1815.
Following a series of diplomatic appointments, Lamartine’s election as deputy for Bergues
in 1833 marked the beginning of a long parliamentary career which culminated with his
appointment as Minister of Foreign Affairs just prior to the outbreak of the 1848 Revo-
lution. Although he played a leading role in this event, Lamartine retired from politics in
December 1848 following his defeat by Louis Napoleon for the presidency of the Republic.
963