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Biographies

showed that his view of Russia could be interpreted optimistically as a justiﬁcation of belief

in Russia’s great future.

Koyr

e 1950; Masaryk 1955; Walicki 1975.

CHAMBERS, ROBERT

1802–71. Born in Peebles, Scotland, Chambers was largely self-educated. From modest

beginnings, selling books on an Edinburgh street, Robert and his brother successfully estab-

lished a publishing ﬁrm in 1832. Chambers wrote mainly on Scottish folklore and his-

tory, supplying articles for Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal,butbythe1840s his attention had

turned to geology. His Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, published anonymously in

1844, became a succ

es de scandale, due to its provocative evolutionary speculations. It offered

hypotheses about human origins and suggested that nature had developed in stages from an

original cloud of interstellar gas into a complex organic world. Its controversial reception

was anxiously noted by Charles Darwin as he contemplated his own elaborate ﬁndings and

speculations about evolution.

Millhauser 1959; Secord 2000.

CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANC¸ OIS-REN

EDE

1768–1848. Born at St Malo, Brittany and educated by the Jesuits at Rennes and Dinan,

Chateaubriand served in the army from 1786–91. He visited North America in 1791–2,

joined the

emigr

e army on his return to France and went into exile in England until

1800.In1802 he refused a diplomatic position in reaction to the execution of the Duc

d’Enghien and became an implacable opponent of Napoleon. Made a peer of France in

1815 Chateaubriand was active in politics in the Restoration. He held diplomatic posts in

Berlin, London and Rome, and was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1822–4. He published

Essai sur les R

evolutions (1802), De Bonaparte et des Bourbons and R

eﬂexions Politiques (1814)

and De la Monarchie selon la Charte (1816).

Aureau 2001;Beik1956;B

enichou 1977; Benrekassa 1986;Cl

ement 1998; Dupuis and Moreau

1967; Godechot 1972; Huet 2000;Lom

enie 1929; Sainte-Beuve 1993;Siegel1970;Switzer1971.

CHERNYSHEVSKII, NIKOLAI GAVRILOVICH

1828–89. Born in Saratov, Chernyshevskii was the main ideologist of the Russian demo-

cratic radicalism of the 1860s. As the editor-in-chief of the opposition journal Sovremennik

(Contemporary) he exercised a formative inﬂuence on an entire generation of the newly

emerged intelligentsia of non-gentry background. In his treatise The Anthropological Principle

in Philosophy (1860) he developed an emancipatory, anthropocentric version of materialism;

in his Criticism of Philosophical Prejudice Against the Peasant Commune (1859) he outlined a

theory of Russia’s direct transition to socialism. In 1862 he was arrested, accused of co-

operation with the revolutionary organisation Land and Freedom and, despite insufﬁcient

evidence, condemned to lifetime exile in Siberia. In prison he wrote the novel What is to be

Done? (1863) in which he described the ‘new people’ of Russia – ‘rational egoists’ – devoted

to the cause of progress, and even a type of ascetic, self-sacriﬁcing revolutionist.

Masaryk 1955; Pereira 1975;Venturi1960.

CHICHERIN, BORIS NIKOLAEVICH

1828–1904. Born in the province of Tambov, Chicherin was a historian, philosopher, jurist

and the leading theorist of conservative liberalism in Russia. His book On Popular Represen-

tation (1866) clearly distinguished between civil rights and political rights. In his Property and

State (1882–3) he defended private law and the free market, condemning socialism. The ﬁve

944

Biographies

volumes of his History of Political Doctrines (1869–1902) belong to the best works of this kind

produced in the nineteenth century. In Russia on the Eve of the Twentieth Century (published

anonymously in Berlin in 1900) he argued that the only solution of Russia’s problems would

be a change from absolute to constitutional monarchy. In his Philosophy of Law (1900)he

departed from Hegelianism and made a contribution to the revival of natural law in Russia.

Hamburg 1992; Kelly 1998; Leontowitsch 1957; Walicki 1987.

CIESZKOWSKI, AUGUST

1814–94. Educated in Cracow then Berlin, where he was particularly inﬂuenced by the

liberal Hegelians Eduard Gans and Karl-Ludwig Michelet. Apart from the Prolegomena,

Cieszkowski participated in (old) Hegelian debates about the nature of God and immortality

and in resistance to Schelling’s ‘philosophy of revelation’. In the decade before 1848,however,

he spent most of his time in Paris, where his book on money, Du Cr

edit et de la Circulation

(1839), became one of the sources of Proudhon’s Philosophie de la Mis

ere.After1848 he

returned to Posen, where he was active in local politics. His life work, Our Father, an attempt

to build a utopian vision of the future upon an esoteric reading of the Lord’s Prayer inspired

by Joachimite prophecy, a millenarian reading of Hegel and Lessing’s Education of the Human

Race, remained unﬁnished at his death.

Liebich 1979.

COBBETT, WILLIAM

1763–1835. Born near Farnham in Kent, Cobbett was a self-educated farmer’s son who

became a politician and radical journalist. From 1784–91 he served as a soldier in New

Brunswick; when discharged he went ﬁrst to France then America where he wrote the

pro-British The Life and Adventures of Peter Porcupine (1796). He returned to England in 1800

and founded Cobbett’s Political Register in 1802, where he freely voiced his radical views. He

entered Parliament in 1832 but died in 1835. His most famous book is Rural Rides (1830)in

which he admires the ‘real’ countryside, striking out against the changes brought on by the

industrial revolution.

Spater 1982.

COBDEN, RICHARD

1804–65. Cobden was born into a poor farming family, received very little formal education,

and at fourteen he started to work in his uncle’s London warehouse. In 1828 he entered

into partnership with two friends selling calico in London and in 1831 they opened a calico

printing works in Lancashire. Cobden subsequently travelled to America and the Levant

and published England, Ireland and America (1835)andRussia (1836); these criticised British

foreign policy and preached free trade. He stood as Member of Parliament for Stockport in

1837 on a free trade platform and failed, but was elected in 1840. Cobden was one of the

seven founding members of the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838.

COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR

1772–1834. Coleridge was educated at Christ’s Hospital and Jesus College, Cambridge.

Following a meeting with Robert Southey in 1794 the two men formed a plan for a

communitarian settlement in America (Pantisocracy). In 1795 they lectured in Br istol to

raise money for this settlement; Coleridge produced a large but disjointed and incomplete

body of poems, journalism, and literary, philosophical and political criticism. The Friend

(1809–10), The Statesman’s Manual (1816), ALaySermon(1817)andOn the Constitution of

the Church and State (1829) expressed views that were broadly conservative in their political

945

Biographies

bearing. There are extensive comments on politics in Coleridge’s Letters, Marginalia Notebooks

and Ta b l e Ta l k .

Coleman 1988; Colmer 1959; Kennedy 1958;Leask1988;Morrow1990.

COMTE, ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANC¸ OIS XAVIER

1798–1857. Born to a Catholic and royalist family, Comte was an intellectually gifted and

rebellious youth. Expelled from the

Ecole Polytechnique in 1816 for subversive activities,

he was from 1817 to 1823 the private secretary of Saint-Simon, a formative experience that

decisively inﬂuenced his development of Positivism. He never acquired an academic post,

and survived on money from lecture and examiner’s fees, and from gifts from admirers (such

as J. S. Mill and George Grote). The range of Comte’s writings is remarkable: mathemat-

ics, philosophy of science, religion, morality and sociology. Particularly inﬂuential was his

emphasis upon veriﬁcation as the essential feature of the new positive methods in succession

to the ‘theolog ical’ and ‘metaphysical’ epochs. Among his important works are the Calendrier

Positiviste (1849), Cat

echisme Positiviste (1852), Cours de Philosophie Positive (6 vols. 1830–42),

Discours sur l’Ensemble du Positivisme (1848)andSyst

eme de Politique Positive (4 vols. 1851–4).

Arnaud 1969;Charlton1959;Dale1989;Frick1990; Gouhier 1931, 1933–41; Lenzer 1975;

Pickering 1993.

CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT,

MARQUIS DE

1743–94. At the outbreak of the French Revolution, Condorcet was inspector of the mint,

permanent secretary of the Acad

emie des Sciences, and a member of the Acad

emie Franc¸aise.

Friend of d’Alembert and Turgot, he was an eminent philosophe with a reputation as a math-

ematician and as a scientiﬁc reformer. He published the important Essai sur l’Application de

l’Analyse

a la Probabilit

edesD

ecisions Rendues

a la Pluralit

edesVoix(1785). Condorcet enthu-

siastically supported the early phase of the revolution, founding with Emmanuel Siey

es the

Society of 1789, and serving as delegate to the Legislative Assembly and to the Convention.

Associated with the Girondins, he shared in their proscription and went into hiding, where

he wrote the inﬂuential Esquisse d’un Tableau des Progr

es de l’Esprit Humain. After his arrest in

March 1794, he was found dead in his cell, probably as the result of self-administered poison.

Baker 1975; Gusdorf 1978; Welch 1984.

CONGREVE, RICHARD

1818–90. The ofﬁcial leader of the English Positivists, Congreve was educated at Rugby

(under Arnold) and at Oxford. He resigned his fellowship at Wadham College in 1855 to

devote himself to propagating Comte’s positive philosophy, with which he had become

acquainted during an earlier visit to Paris. A split in the ranks of English Positivism occurred

in 1878, and Congreve became the leader of the more religious wing based in Chapel Street.

His former students, Harrison, Beesley and Bridges, formed a separate society at Newton

Hall.

Simon 1963;Wright1986.

CONSID

ERANT, VICTOR

1808–93. Consid

erant was born in Salins and studied engineering at the

Ecole Polytechnique.

As an engineer he collaborated with Fourier and became editor of the Fourierist journals

Le Phalanst

ere and La Phalange.In1848 he was elected member of the Assembl

ee Nationale

but was forced to go into exile in Belgium when he organised the 1849 insurrection against

Louis-Napol

eon Bonaparte. In 1852 he emigrated to the United States where he tried and

failed to establish a colony in Texas following Fourier’s principles. His main publications are

946

Biographies

the Destin

ee Sociale (1847–9), a digest of Fourier’s writings, and the Principes du Socialisme

(1847) which argues in support of Fourierism over other forms of socialism.

Beecher 2001; Davidson 1988.

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN

1767–1830. Born in Lausanne and educated at the University of Edinburgh. In 1794 he met

Anne Louise Germaine de Sta

el, daughter of Jacques Necker, former minister of France.

In 1795 they arrived in Paris and remained there before going into exile from 1802–14.In

the intervening years Constant published a ser ies of justly famous pamphlets setting out his

political views. Despite his opposition to Napoleon Bonaparte, on the latter’s return from

Elba he provided the Emperor with a new constitution. During the Restoration (1814–30)

he combined the activities of journalist and parliamentary deputy, establishing himself as

France’s foremost liberal publicist. In addition to the many political writings he published

during this period, Constant also published the semi-autobiographical novel Adolphe (1816),

upon which for many years his reputation was based.

Holmes 1984.

DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH

1785–1860. Born in Wismar and trained as a classical philologist, Dahlmann became a

historian and took up politics while Professor of Histor y at Kiel University. In 1825

he was appointed professor at G

ottingen, where he became the leading ﬁgure among

the seven professors who protested against the abrogation of the constitution in 1837 and

were subsequently dismissed. In 1842 Dahlmann accepted the chair of history and political

science at Bonn. He was a member of the Frankfurt Parliament from 1848–9. His liberal

views were inﬂuenced by British models, and his writings reﬂect the nationalism generated

during the Napoleonic period. In his view a united Germany should not include Austria.

This attitude underlies his Quellenkunde der Deutschen Geschichte (Sources on German history)

(1830). He also wrote a Geschichte von D

anemark (History of Denmark, 3 vols. 1840–3).

Heimpel 1962; Hubert 1937.

DANILEVSKII, NIKOLAI IAKOVLEVICH

1822–85. Born in the province of Orlovskaia, Danilevski was a naturalist and the main

theorist of Russian pan-Slavism. In 1847 he received a master’s degree in botany from

St Petersburg Univer sity. For his activity in the Petrashevsky discussion group (seen by the

authorities as a revolutionary circle) he was arrested in 1849 and exiled to Vologda. He

resumed his scholarly activities in 1853, taking part in a number of scientiﬁc expeditions and

becoming director of a botanical garden in 1879. His book Russia and Europe (1871)bases

pan-Slavism on naturalistic foundations, developing the theory of ‘historico-cultural types’,

similar to different biological species, and proclaiming the replacement of political idealism

by self-conscious national egoism.

Fadner 1961;Thaden1964; Walicki 1975.

DARWIN, CHARLES

1809–82. Born in Shrewsbury, Darwin studied medicine at Edinburgh before moving, in

1827, to Christ’s College, Cambridge. In 1831 he accepted an invitation to join a ﬁve-

year scientiﬁc survey as a naturalist aboard HMS Beagle. The voyage took him to South

America, the Galapagos, Tahiti, Australia and South Africa, and the papers he sent back

ensured his reputation as a scientist on his return. This work, combined with research into

the domestication of animals and a reading of Malthus’ writings on population, led Darwin

to write On the Origin of Species (1859). This provoked violent critical reactions as well as

947

Biographies

enthusiasm, especially for its perceived atheistic implications. It was followed by Va r i a t i o n o f

Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868), The Descent of Man (1871)andThe Expression

of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). Darwin was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Beer 1983;Bowlby1990;Browne1995;Clark1984; Darwin 1958; Desmond and Moore 1991;

Grubar 1974; Himmelfarb 1959;Levine1988.

DESTUTT DE TRACY, ANTOINE-LOUIS-CLAUDE, COMTE DE

1754–1836. Of a noble family of Scottish descent, Destutt de Tracy served brieﬂy as a cavalry

leader under his friend Lafayette during the Revolution. Imprisoned during the Terror he

studied Locke and Condillac and, upon his release, was named an associate of the National

Institute in the Class of Moral and Political Sciences. He coined the term ‘ideology’ and

was a leader of the Id

eologue school during the Directory, Empire and Restoration. Author

of a liberal treatise on economics (the third volume of his inﬂuential

emens d’Id

eologie),

a utilitarian democrat and cautious constitutionalist in politics (as seen in his Commentaire

sur l’Esprit des Lois de Montesquieu), Destutt de Tracy inﬂuenced the revival of liberal and

republican thought in France after the Revolution.

Gusdorf 1978; Kennedy 1978; Welch 1984.

DICEY, ALBERT VENN

1835–1922. Born near Lutterworth in Leicestershire, Dicey was the son of a newspaper pro-

prietor. He went up to Balliol College, Oxford in 1858, and formed important friendships,

notably with James Bryce. After over twenty years of legal practice and journalism, Dicey

was elected to the Vinerian chair in English law at Oxford in 1882.In1885, he published

his Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, intended to demonstrate the impor-

tance of common law to the constitution. His most signiﬁcant contribution to the history

of political thought was his Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion (1905),

originally given at Harvard in 1898. He became a prominent opponent of both Home Rule

and votes for women.

Collini 1993; Cosgrove 1980;Harvie1976; Qvortrup 1999.

DILKE, SIR CHARLES WENTWORTH

1843–1911. A radical politician, Dilke was born in London and educated at Trinity Hall,

Cambridge. He inherited the baronetcy when his father died in 1869 together with the

Atheneum and Notes and Queries. He was Liberal Member of Parliament for Chelsea from

1868–86, losing his seat when he was cited as a co-respondent in a divorce case. Dilke had

been called to the Bar in 1866 but never practised, instead embarking on travels through

Canada, Australia, New Zealand and America. These formed the basis of his book Greater

Britain, A Record of Travel in English-Speaking Countries During 1866 and 1867 (1868), which

ran to eight editions. This was followed by The Problems of Greater Britain (1890), a study of

the problems of the British Empire.

Jenkins 1958.

DISRAELI, BENJAMIN (EARL OF BEACONSFIELD)

1804–81. A politician and novelist, Disraeli was born in London. He was educated privately

and then trained as a solicitor. When early business ventures failed he started writing and

entered politics, becoming MP for Maidstone in 1837;in1841 he was elected to represent

Shrewsbury. Disraeli twice held the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer and when Lord

Derby resigned in 1868 he became the ﬁrst Prime Minister of Jewish parentage. He occupied

this post again from 1874–80, a period marked by the conferment on Victoria of the title

948

Biographies

of Empress of India. Disraeli’s trilogy of novels, Coningsby, Sybil and Tancred (1844–7) roused

the social conscience to the evils of industrial life and the class divide between rich and poor.

Cain 2007b; Vincent 1990.

DOUGLASS, FREDERICK

1818–95. Born in Maryland, the son of a slave and probably a white father, he was originally

named Frederick Baily. In 1835, after working for two brutal masters, he was sent to a new

master but he won his freedom and took the name Douglass. By the 1840s he became

associated with the radical anti-slavery position of William Lloyd Garrison and later John

Brown. The publication of his ﬁrst autobiography made him famous and, in general, he was

an important writer and speaker on behalf of the anti-slavery cause and after the Civil War

of liberal reconstruction policies. In time he became a strong supporter of Lincoln. Douglass

was the most famous and inﬂuential black leader in the United States of his time.

Blight 1989; Douglass 1994;Martin1984; McFeely 1991; Stauffer 2001.

DU BOIS, W. E. B. (WILLIAM EDWARD BURGHARDT)

1868–1923. Black American civil rights leader, sociolog ist and activist, Du Bois was born in

Massachusetts and educated at Fisk and then Harvard from where he received a doctorate

in history in 1895 with the title The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States

of America, 1638–1870 (1896). From 1897–1910 Du Bois taught economics and history at

Atlanta University. In 1910 he became editor of Crisis, the ofﬁcial publication of the National

Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), a post he held until 1934

when he returned to Atlanta. He wrote widely on race and African-American history, his

most inﬂuential work being The Souls of Black Folk (1903). He became increasingly radical

and anti-imperialist in later life.

UHRING, EUGEN

1833–1921. A German philosopher and political economist, trained in the law, D

uhring

practised in Berlin from 1856–9. However, an eye weakness (which led later to total blindness)

forced him to abandon this career. In 1861 he took his doctorate in philosophy at the

University of Berlin. He became a university lecturer in 1863 but he was dismissed in 1877

after feuding with his colleagues. From then until his death he lived the life of a private

scholar. In his later years, D

uhring’s attacks on religion (Asiatismus), militarism, Marxism, the

Bismarck state, the universities and Judaism became more and more virulent. Nevertheless,

he retained a small group of loyal follower s who founded a journal primarily devoted to his

essays, the Personalist und Emanzipator (1899).

DUMONT,

ETIENNE

1759–1829.BorninGenevain1759, Dumont originally trained as a clergyman, but he left

Geneva in 1783 for political reasons and joined his sisters in St Petersburg. Two years later

he left for England to work in the ofﬁce of Prime Minister Lord Shelburne. There he was

introduced to some of Bentham’s manuscripts and as a result became an enthusiastic disciple,

producing a series of works which made the new jurisprudence and political theory known

in the world of letters. He translated, condensed and even supplied omissions, giving his style

to the whole. In Bentham’s collected Works, published posthumously, many of the important

treatises are retranslations into English from Dumont’s versions.

Blamires 1990.

949

Biographies

ELIOT, GEORGE (M ARY ANN EVANS)

1819–80. Reared as an evangelical, Eliot rejected Christianity in the early 1840s. Her ﬁrst

published work was a translation of David Strauss’ Das Leben Jesus (1846). In 1850 she

moved to London and began to write for the Westminster Review, where she became part

of a literary circle that included Herbert Spencer and George Henry Lewes. In 1854 her

translation of Feuerbach’s Essence of Christianity appeared. Unsurpassed in her ability to

combine philosophical speculation with an evocation of the life and speech of the Midlands,

Eliot gained immediate popularity and has achieved a lasting reputation. Her most important

novels are Adam Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), Silas Marner (1861), Romola (1863),

Felix Holt (1866), Middlemarch (1872)andDaniel Deronda (1876).

Beer 1986;Dale1989;Paxton1991;Wright1981, 1986.

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO

1803–82. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of a minister, Emerson attended Harvard

College from 1817–21.In1836 he started the Transcendental Club, whose members included

Henry David Thoreau. During this time he emerged as an inﬂuential poet, essayist and

lecturer on a wide range of topics, a major public intellectual whose inﬂuence spread to

Europe, particularly in the work of Friedrich Nietzsche. He was bitterly opposed to the

Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 and embraced the cause of the violent abolitionist John Brown.

In spite of this, he had a deep reformist belief in the possibility of correcting the injustices

of American politics and came to see Abraham Lincoln as the ‘true representative’ of the

American continent. In his later years he continued to lecture widely until his health began

to decline in 1872.

Cavell 2003; Gougeon 1990;Kateb1995;Lopez1996; Richardson 1995; Teichgraber 1995.

ENGELS, FRIEDRICH

1820–95. Born into a prosperous industrial family in Barmen, Engels began his career in the

family ﬁrm, but intellectually he was drawn to the radicals of his time, especially the Young

Hegelians. He went to a branch in Manchester in 1842, the year he met Karl Marx, and,

beginning in 1844, they collaborated closely until Marx’s death in 1883.Engelswasmore

of an interpreter and disseminator of Marxism than a creative theoretician. Nonetheless, his

contributions were signiﬁcant, including The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844

(1845), The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)andtheAnti-D

uhring

(1878).

Carver 1989; Hunley 1991; Hunt 1975, 1984;Mayer1934; Rigby 1992.

FADUMA, ORISHATUKEH

1857–1946. A Yoruba born in British Guyana, he was later christened William J. Davis

in honour of the Welsh missionary. His parents later immigrated to Africa and settled

in Sierra Leone. He was the ﬁrst native African to enrol at Yale Divinity School from

where he graduated in 1895. Subsequently, he accepted an American Missionary Association

appointment to head the mission church and school at Troy, North Carolina. He served for

nearly ﬁfty years as a missionary educator in the American South and West Africa.

Moore 1996.

FERRY, JULES FRANC¸ OIS CAMILLE

1832–93. A lawyer and deputy who was mayor of the city during the siege of Paris ( 1870–

1), Jules Ferry later became an architect of the French school system (as minister of public

instruction from 1879–82) and of the French Empire (as a cabinet minister in the early 1880s).

Inﬂuenced by French revolutionary experiments in education and by positivist principles, he

950

Biographies

tried to strengthen the foundations of the Republic and establish the moral unity of France

by promoting free compulsory primary education, by sponsoring anti-clerical legislation, by

expanding the secondary school curriculum and providing for state secondary education for

girls, and by rebuilding the university system.

Furet 1985; Furet and Ozouf 1993; Gaillard 1989;Nicolet1982;Scott1951.

FEUERBACH, LUDWIG

1804–72. Feuerbach was the son of a famous jurist. At ﬁrst a supporter of romantic ratio-

nalism, he became a Hegelian and ﬁnally a student of Hegel in Berlin from 1824.Evenat

that time he expressed doubts about Hegel’s reconciliation between philosophy and reli-

gion, which he expressed in his ﬁrst anonymous publication in 1830, Thoughts on Death

and Immortality.Inthe1830s, he worked as a Privatdozent at the University of Erlangen

in Bavaria, but the strongly fundamentalist, Pietist tone of the university made permanent

employment unlikely. Eventually marriage to Berthe L

ow, a woman of independent means,

in 1837, made it possible for him to withdraw from university employment and assume the

life of an independent scholar.

Wartofsky 1977; Williams 2006.

FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB

1762–1814. Born in Rammenau, Saxony, Fichte studied theology and then philosophy at

Jena, becoming an ardent disciple of Kant. As Professor of Philosophy at Jena he modiﬁed

the Kantian system in his Wissensschaftslehre (1785), by substituting for the ‘thing-in-itself’

as the absolute reality, the more subjective Ego, the primitive act of consciousness. In 1805

he became professor at Erlangen, where he published the more popular versions of his

philosophy. His historical importance is as the author of Reden an die Deutsche Nation (1807–8,

Addresses to the German Nation), in which he invoked a metaphysical German nationalism

as resistance against Napoleon. In 1810 the University of Berlin was opened, and Fichte,

who had drawn up its constitution, became its ﬁrst rector.

La Vopa 2001; Neuhouser 1990; Rohs 1991.

FITZHUGH, GEORGE

1806–81. A lawyer, author and journalist, Fitzhugh was born in Virginia. He was largely self-

educated and subsequently read law. He practised law for a while, but disliked the profession

and turned to writing and journalism. Fitzhugh was in favour of slavery and defended it in

his pamphlet Slavery Justiﬁed (1849). This theme was continued in subsequent articles and in

his books Sociology for the South: Or the Failure of Free Society (1854)andCannibals All! Or,

Slaves without Masters (1857). These publications alarmed Northerners like Abraham Lincoln

and encouraged Southerners to take a ﬁrmer stance in favour of slavery.

Wish 1943.

FLORES MAG

ON, RICARDO

1873–1922. Born in San Antonio Eloxochitl

an, Oaxaca, Mexico, Flores Mag

on partici-

pated in 1892 student demonstrations against the re-election of President Porﬁrio D

ıaz. He

organised the anti-government newspaper s El Democr

atica in 1893 and Regeneraci

on in 1900.

After repeated arrests, imprisonments and threats of death, he went into exile in the United

States in 1904.In1905, in St. Louis, Missouri, he helped form the Junta Organizadora del

Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM), which at ﬁrst advocated Mexican economic nationalism,

political freedom and revolution against the D

ıaz dictatorship. By 1911, the PLM endorsed

communist anarchism. Hounded by the Mexican government, US federal agents and local

951

Biographies

and state authorities, Flores Mag

on spent half of the years between 1904 and 1922 in prison.

He died in Leavenworth in 1922 from lack of treatment for diabetes.

Day 1991;Hart1978; MacLachlan 1991.

FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM

1793–1872. Born in London and descended from a noble Huguenot family, he was sent

to Woolwich Arsenal as preparation for a military career, but ill-health led him to suspend

his studies. Once recovered, he studied law and at the age of nineteen began writing for

newspapers. He went on to be employed by The Times and the Morning Chronicle and between

1830 and 1847,theExaminer newspaper was under his complete control and he brought

in such contributors as John Stuart Mill, W. M. Thackeray and Charles Dickens. His best

articles were republished as England under Seven Administrations (1837).

FOURIER, CHARLES

1772–1837.BorninBesanc¸on, France, Fourier studied architecture and later worked as

a commercial traveller. In his 1808 Theory of the Four Movements, Fourier developed his

theory that men’s natural passions would, if properly channelled, lead to social harmony. He

condemned ‘civilisation’ as a distorting force, and spent his life attempting to theorise and

raise money for the development of communities (‘phalansteries’) in which his ideas could

be expressed. Within ‘phalansteries’, Fourier argued for the systematic expression of diverse

passions, including sexual passions, and for work to be united with pleasure. Fourierite

communities were tried in France and the United States, but none was long-lasting. He did,

however, gain an extensive following, led after his death by Victor Consid

erant.

Beecher 1986;Goldstein1991; Wilson 2002.

FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH

1773–1843. Born in Barby, Saxony, Fries studied theology at the academy of the Moravian

brethren at Niesky, and philosophy at Leipzig and Jena and then in 1806 became Professor

of Philosophy and Elementary Mathematics at Heidelberg. His most important treatise,

the Neue oder Anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft, was an attempt to give a new foundation

of psychological analysis to the critical theory of Kant. In 1816 he took on the chair of

theoretical philosophy at Jena. Politically he was a strong Liberal and Unionist and he

published his views in a brochure, Von Deutschen Bund und Deutscher Staatsverfassung, and his

inﬂuence in turn gave powerful impetus to agitation which led in 1819 to the issue of the

Carlsbad Decrees.

Hubmann 1997.

FULLER, MARGARET

1810–50. Born in Massachusetts, Fuller received an intense scholarly education from her

father Timothy Fuller. In Boston, she became famous for her philosophical writing and her

‘conversations’ – intellectual salons – which provided a rare scholarly space in which women

might share ideas with men. She became editor of the Transcendentalist journal the Dial in

1839,andin1845 she extended a Dial article into a book, Woman in the Nineteenth Century.

In 1846 she began a tour of Europe; her visit to Italy coincided with the 1848 Revolution,

and she became a fervent supporter of Guiseppe Mazzini. She met the Italian revolutionary

Giovanni Angelo Ossoli and bore him a son in September 1848. While returning home with

her new family to the United States in May 1850, their ship struck a sand-bar and all three

drowned.

Vo n M e h re n 1994.

952

Biographies

GALTON, FRANCIS

1822–1911. Galton grew up in Birmingham. He interrupted his medical studies in Birming-

ham to read mathematics at Cambridge (although he left without a degree). Meteorographica

(1863) was a further change of direction, making a notable contribution to the science of

meteorology, but it was Galton’s reading of his cousin Darwin’s On the Origin of Species that

set the stage for his ambitious research into experimental and speculative psychology and

resulting in Hereditary Genius (1869)andInquiries into Human Faculty and its Development

(1883). Among his many innovations were the application of statistical analyses to the ques-

tion of inherited intelligence, the development of tools for anthropometric research and a

system of ﬁngerprint identiﬁcation to be used by the police. The advancement of eugenics

became the central mission of his later life. He was knighted in 1909.

Blacker 1952; Bulmer 2003; Forrest 1974;Kevles1985; Pearson 1914–30.

GAMBETTA, L

EON

1838–82. Genoese by birth, the future French statesman went to Paris in 1857 to study law.

A popular orator, he ﬁercely opposed the imperial regime and was in 1869 elected deputy to

the Corps L

egislatif. He was minister of the interior after the revolution of 4 September, and

undertook a reorganisation of the French army. When he feared the forces of the monarchist

right, Gambetta associated himself with the extreme left, but when these fears receded, he

was instrumental in rallying all moderates to the idea of an inclusive French republic. Often

characterised as a ‘positivist’ republican, Gambetta borrowed from the spirit and language of

Comtism to legitimise a process-oriented republic.

Bur y 1973; Furet and Ozouf 1993;Nicolet1982;Scott1951.

GANS, EDUARD

1798–1839. Gans was a student and disciple of Thibaut at Heidelberg. In response to the

increasingly conservative turn after the Carlsbad decrees in 1819, Gans and others founded the

Union for the Culture and Science of Jews, to reconcile Judaism with a universal conception

of science and culture. In 1822 he applied for the professorship of law in Berlin University.

In response the king declared that Jews were no longer eligible. In 1825,heconvertedto

Christianity, was appointed in Berlin in 1826 and became Hegel’s closest companion. His

great work, Erbrecht in Weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung (1824–35), is of permanent value, not

only for its extensive survey of facts, but for the admirable manner in which the general

theory of the slow evolution of legal principles is presented.

Moggach 2006; Waszek 2006.

GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE

1807–82. Son of a sailor he joined the secret society Young Italy and took part in a failed

insurrection in 1833, going into exile in 1834. He returned to Italy in 1848 and took

control of the forces defending the Roman Republic in 1849. Following a second exile he

decided to work with Piedmont in pursuit of national uniﬁcation. He was given a command

during the 1859 war against Austria. He subsequently took a small force to invade Sicily;

this led to the collapse of the government of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, of which

he was brieﬂy ruler, and the rapid uniﬁcation of the whole peninsula under Piedmontese

leadership. Garibaldi thereafter belonged to the radical opposition to the new state, leading

two unsuccessful invasions of Rome in 1862 and 1867.

Riall 2007.

953