Jones G.S., Claeys G. The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought
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Biographies
ACTON, LORD JOHN
1834–1902. Born in Sicily, Acton was educated in England and Germany. He first gained
public recognition writing for liberal Catholic journals. He was a Liberal MP from 1858–65
and was made a peer by Gladstone, his friend, in 1869.In1895 he became Regius Professor
of Modern History at Cambridge and in the years up to his death he planned the Cambridge
Modern History. Acton never wrote a book, but was influential through his lectures and
articles in periodicals. These are collected in Essays on Church and State (1952)andEssays on
Freedom and Power (1948).
r
Chadwick 1998.
ADAMS, HENRY
1838–1918. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, into one of the most prominent families in
America: both his grandfather, John Quincy Adams and his great-grandfather, John Adams
had been presidents of the United States. After graduating from Harvard, he served as
private secretar y to his father Charles Francis Adams, the American ambassador to Great
Britain during the Civil War. Adams returned to the United States in 1868 and pursued
a career in journalism. In 1870 he was appointed Assistant Professor at Harvard where he
taught medieval, European and later American history. Resigning from Harvard in 1877,
he pursued a life of independent scholarship, publishing biographies of Albert Gallatin and
John Randolph, as well as the anonymous novel Democracy and the pseudonymous novel
Esther. However, his most important achievement during this period was his monumental
History of the United States during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison
(1889–91).
r
Decker 1990; Levenson 1957;Samuels1948, 1958, 1964; Young 2001.
ANDREWS, STEPHEN PEARL
1812–86. Born in Templeton, Massachusetts, Andrews moved to Texas as a young man
to practise law. Hoping to free the state’s slaves by government purchase, he travelled to
London in an unsuccessful effort to seek funds. Upon his retur n to the United States, he
introduced the country to shorthand, believing it would become a universal language. In
1850 Andrews met Josiah Warren and embraced individualist anarchism. The following year,
1851, the two men founded the individualist utopian community Modern Times on Long
Island; it survived until the 1860s. Also in 1851, Andrews wrote The Science of Society,a
highly regarded scientific explanation of individualist anarchism. In the pages of the New
York Tribune, Andrews caused a stir during a debate with Horace Greeley and Henry James
by advocating free love.
r
Johnpoll and Klehr 1986;Martin1957;Stern1968.
934
Biographies
ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL
1820–1906. A reformer and women’s suffragist, born in Massachusetts, Susan Anthony was
brought up a Quaker and allegedly started to read and write at the age of three. She was
a teacher for fifteen years and then became active in the temperance movement; however,
as a woman she was forbidden to speak at temperance rallies. In 1851 she met Elizabeth
Cady Stanton and this friendship led her to join the women’s rights movement and for
the rest of her life she lectured and campaigned for women’s suffrage and rights and the
abolition of slavery. She compiled with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage the
three-volume History of Woman Suffrage (1881–6).
r
DuBois 1999;Kraditor1981.
ARNOLD, M ATTHEW
1822–88. Arnold was an English poet a nd cultural critic, educated at Rugby and Oxford.
After graduating in 1844 he taught classics for a while at Rugby until he became an inspector
of schools in 1851, a post he would occupy for 35 years. His reputation as a poet was
established with Empedocles on Etna (1852)andPoems (1853) He was Professor of Poetry at
Oxford from 1857–67. During this time he wrote his most famous critical works, Essays in
Criticism (1865)andCulture and Anarchy (1869).
r
Collini 1988; Honan 1981.
ARNOLD, THOM AS
1795–1842. Arnold was educated at Winchester and Oxford. After obtaining a first class
degree, he was awarded a fellowship at Oriel. He was ordained deacon in 1818 and started
a small school in Laleham. In 1827 he was invited to become a master at Rugby School
and after his appointment as headmaster in 1828 he started a programme of regeneration at
the school. His reforms were to have a lasting effect on the development of public school
education in England. In his lifetime he wrote widely on social reform and also supported
Catholic emancipation. His son was Matthew Arnold the poet. His main works are Principles
of Church Reform (1833), History of Rome (1838)andChristian Life (1841).
AUSTIN, JOHN
1790–1859. One of five sons of an Ipswich industrialist, he entered the army but continued
his studies in history and philosophy, and returning home in 1812 he began to read law,
was called to the Bar in 1818 and the next year mar ried Sarah Taylor (later translator of
Ranke). Austin studied in German with Savigny and others and began lecturing in 1828 to a
remarkable group of students including the young John Stuart Mill. In 1834 he lectured on
‘the general principles of jur isprudence and international law’, and later he was appointed
Royal Commissioner to Malta. Austin’s extensive influence in the philosophy of law, in
which he distinguished between jurisprudence and morality, arose mainly from the second
edition of his Province of Jurisprudence, published posthumously by his wife in 1861.
r
Collini 1993; Kelley 1990; Morison 1982.
BAGEH OT, WALTER
1826–77. An economist and journalist, Bagehot was born in Somerset and educated in
Bristol and University College, London. He was called to the Bar and then entered his
father’s business of shipping and banking. Bagehot wrote many articles for journals in the
fields of economics, politics, history and literature and in 1855 founded the National Review
with his friend Richard Holt. From 1860–77 he was the editor-in-chief of The Economist.
Bagehot was one of the first to advocate the election of life peers to strengthen the House
935
Biographies
of Lords. His most significant works are The English Constitution (1867), Physics and Politics
(1872)andLombard Street (1873).
r
Irvine 1939; St John-Stevas 1959.
BAIN, ALEXANDER
1818–1903. Scottish philosopher and psycholog ist, born in Aberdeen. Bain was educated at
Marischal College, Aberdeen where he later taught for three years. His acquaintance with
John Stuart Mill began when he started contributing to The Westminster Review in 1840 and
in 1842 he assisted Mill with the revision of the manuscript of his System of Logic. He became
Professor of Log ic at Aberdeen University (1860–81), and founded the journal Mind in 1876.
His psychology was firmly based on physiology, and he sought to explain mind through a
physical theory of the association of ideas.
BAKUNIN, M IKHAIL
1814–76. Born into the Russian gentry, Bakunin spent several years in artillery school and the
army before deciding on a life of left-wing activism. During the 1830sand1840s, Bakunin
absorbed romantic sentimentalism and German idealism, then Left Hegelianism and finally
anarchism. He agitated for Polish national independence and pan-Slavism, and took an active
part in the revolutionary struggles in Prague in 1848 and in Dresden in 1849. Handed over
to the Russian authorities, he spent over a decade imprisoned and in Siberian exile. In 1861,
he escaped to Japan, then travelled via the United States to London. Until his death in 1876,
he was particularly active in Italy and Switzerland, and it was from this regional base that he
organised his secret sects, plotted revolutionary conspiracies, and confronted Marx with an
anarchist theory that questioned the very basis of authority and political power.
r
Berlin 1978;Carr1961;Hepner1950; Kelly 1982; Lehning 1974; Leier 2006; McLaughlin 2002;
Mendel 1981;Pyziur1968; Ravindranathan 1988;Venturi1960.
BALLANCHE, PIERRE-SIMON
1776–1847. Born in Lyon and steeped in its culture of mysticism, Ballanche was a romantic
thinker who, during the period of the Restoration and the July Monarchy, transformed the
counter-revolutionary ideas of Maistre and Bonald into theories of expiation and progress. In
Du Sentiment (1801), he placed the blame for the Revolution on Enlightenment rationalism,
proposing sentiment instead as the safeguard of the foundations of religion and society.
Ballanche’s great work was the Paling
´
en
´
esie Sociale (1827–9), never entirely finished, in which
he mapped out what he took to be the universal laws of human history. In the Paling
´
en
´
esie,
Ballanche agrees with Bonald and Maistre that the individual cannot exist apart from society
and that language and society are born together; but he departs from these traditionalists,
in ascribing to humanity the capacity for rebirth thanks to a seed of ‘palingenetic’ progress
contained in primitive man. Ballanche predicted that, through its sufferings, the human race
would one day achieve perfection and unity.
r
B
´
enichou 1977; McAlla 1998; Sainte-Beuve 1993.
BARKER, ERNEST
1874–1960. Born in Woodley, Cheshire, Barker was the son of a farm worker and former
miner. He won a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, and arrived at Balliol College,
Oxford in 1893. Trained in classics and history, his first book examined The Political Thought
of Plato and Aristotle (1906). His interests in idealism and pluralism informed his popular
study of Political Thought from Spencer to Today (1915). After the First World War, he served
as principal of King’s College, London, before taking up the chair in political science at
936
Biographies
Cambridge in 1927. His work combined both theoretical and institutional approaches to
political science.
r
Runciman 1997;Stapleton1994.
BAUER, BRUNO
1808–82. Bauer read theology at Berlin University and between 1834 and 1839 he taught as a
Privatdozent at Berlin and was counted as one of the most gifted of the orthodox Hegelians.
He was appointed to edit Hegel’s lectures on religion against the objections of Hegel’s son
who thought him too conservative. In the 1850s he became increasingly preoccupied with
the growing power of Russia, seen from a German nationalistic perspective. At the same
time his contempt for democracy and his hostility to Judaism became increasingly prominent
and unrestrained, particularly once he became assistant to Hermann Wagener, editor of the
ultra-conservative Kreuzzeitung (Journal of the Cross) between 1859 and 1866.From1866
until his death in 1882, Bauer farmed in the Berlin suburb of Rixdorf.
r
Moggach 2003, 2006; Tomba 2006.
BEBEL, (FERDINAND) AUGUST
1840–1913. Born in Cologne-Deutz, the son of a low-ranking army officer, Bebel attended
the Volksschule and was trained as a wood turner and cabinet maker. He joined the Arbeit-
erbildungsverein (1860) and rose quickly to prominence in the labour movement. A founder
of the Social Democratic Workers’ Party (1869), he explained its principles in Unsere Ziele
(1869), and for several decades was the single most important leader of social democracy. He
studied socialist thought seriously, especially Marxism, and presented his interpretation in
the popular Woman and Socialism (1st edition 1879). His memoir, Aus meinem Leben (3 vols.
1910–14) is a rich source for his life and the labour movement.
r
Herrmann and Emmrich 1989; Lopes and Roth 2000;Maehl1980; Schraepler 1966; Seebacher-
Brandt 1988.
BEESLEY, EDWARD SPENCER
1831–1915. The son of an evangelical minister, Beesley was educated at Wadham College,
Oxford, where he met the other future leaders of Comtism in England (Richard Congreve,
then a popular tutor, Freder ic Harrison and John Henry Bridges). Soon after leaving Oxford,
Beesley became converted to Positivism. Based on Comte’s view of the proletariat and its
‘historical destiny’, he became very active in the labour movement during the 1860sand
1870s. He also held a series of academic appointments, including Professor of History at
University College, London. In 1893 he became editor of the newly founded Positivist
Review.
r
Harrison 1959, 1965.
BELINSKII, VISSARION GRIGORIEVICH
1811–48. Born in Sveaborg (Finland), Belinskii was a literary critic whose writings exercised
a powerful influence on several generations of the Russian intelligentsia. In the second half
of the 1830s he was a Hegelian and preached the ‘philosophical reconciliation with real-
ity’. At the beginning of the 1840s he renounced his ‘reconciliation’, replaced conservative
historicism with the Left Hegelian ‘philosophy of action’, and transformed the journal Otech-
estvennye Zapiski (Annals of the Fatherland) into the chief organ of democratic Westernism.
In 1846 he joined the staff of Sovremennik (Contemporary) and engaged himself in polemics
with the Slavophiles. In 1847 he made a trip to the West and as a result wrote his famous
Letter to N. V. Gogol (1847).
r
Berlin 1978; Masaryk 1955; Walicki 1975.
937
Biographies
BELLAMY, EDWARD
1850–98. Born in Massachusetts, the son of a Baptist minister, Bellamy was an American
journalist and political theorist who studied law and worked briefly in the newspaper industry.
He wrote four novels and many articles in his lifetime; however, he is most remembered
as author of the utopian Looking Backward 2000 to 1887 (1889) which foretells many changes
that have since become reality. The book achieved fame worldwide. In later life Bellamy
lectured widely before dying of tuberculosis.
r
Bowman 1958.
BENTHAM, JEREMY
1748–1832. Born in Spitalfields, London, Bentham entered Oxford at the age of twelve,
and was admitted to Lincoln’s Inn at the age of nineteen. He published copiously on penal
and social reform, economics and politics and he is best known for his pioneering works
A Fragment on Government (1776)andIntroduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
(1789), which argued that the proper objective of all conduct and legislation is ‘the greatest
happiness of the greatest number’, and developed a ‘hedonic calculus’ to estimate the effects
of different actions. He was made an honorary citizen of the French Republic in 1792.
r
Baumgardt 1952; Conway 1990a, 1990b; Everett 1931; Harrison 1983; Kelly 1990;Ogden1932;
Rosen 1983, 1992.
BENZENBERG, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
1777–1846. Benzenberg studied theology and later natural sciences in G
¨
ottingen. A German
liberal, he was in favour of provincial/regional (not national) government as the best repre-
sentation of the public will. He published a treatise
¨
Uber Verfassung (On the Constitution) in
D
¨
usseldorf in 1816 which claimed that the role of parliament must be to communicate and
pressure government to rule in line with public opinion. The treatise formed the basis of the
constitutional system in the southern German principalities in the nineteenth century which
maintained the powerful position of the prince and his gover nment while also demanding
that a parliamentary majority should be secured for legislation, especially when it concerned
taxation. In 1844 he founded his own observatory in Bilk, dying there two years later.
r
Baum 2008.
BERNSTEIN, EDUARD
1850–1932. Born in Berlin, the son of a Jewish locomotive engineer, Bernstein joined
the Social Democratic Workers’ Party (Eisenachers) in 1872.HeeditedDer Sozialdemokrat
(1879–90) in Zurich, until expelled in 1887, and then in London, where he formed a
close relationship with Engels. Although a convinced Marxist for many years, contemporary
developments in capitalism led him to question major principles of Marx’s theory, a position
he explicated in The Preconditions of Socialism (1899) and other publications. Bernstein’s
revisionism aroused a fierce debate among socialists; the immediate outcome was a formal
rejection of his views in 1903. Since the Second World War the value of his ideas has been
increasingly appreciated.
r
Carsten 1993;Gay1952;Meyer1977;Steger1997.
BICHAT, M ARIE FRANC¸ OIS XAVIER
1771–1802. A French anatomist and physiologist, Bichat studied under M. A. Petit in Lyon
and then with P. I. Dessault in Paris, where he began giving lectures in 1797. Appointed
physician to the H
ˆ
otel-Dieu in 1801, he was the first to simplify anatomy and physiology
by identifying tissues and classifying them into types. His larger speculations on human
physiological types, especially in his Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort (1800),
938
Biographies
influenced the development of French social thought away from an egalitarianism based on
the sensationalist theory of mind. He also published the Tr a it
´
e des Membranes (1800), the
Tra i t
´
e d’Anatomie Descriptive (5 vols. 1801–3)andtheAnatomie G
´
en
´
erale (1801).
r
Dobo and Role 1989; Haigh 1984.
BLANC, LOUIS
1811–82. Blanc was born in Madrid where his father was inspector-general of finance for
Joseph Bonaparte; he was therefore deeply affected by the fall of the Empire. He studied in
Paris where he became a journalist and launched the Revue du Progr
`
es in 1839. His political
aspirations led him to write L’Organisation du Travail (Organisation of Labour) (1839)inwhich
he defines his ideal of a new social order. He was a member of the provisional government
of 1848 but was forced to flee to England when implicated in the workers’ insurrection. In
exile he wrote the twelve-volume Histoire de la R
´
evolution Franc¸aise (1847–62). He returned
to France in 1871 and became a member of the Assembl
´
ee Nationale.
r
Blanc 1982.
BLANQUI, AUGUSTE
1805–81. A French revolutionary and radical thinker and leader of the movement known as
Blanquism. Blanqui was nicknamed L’Enferm
´
e as he spent some 37 years of his life in prison.
He was educated in Paris, studying law and medicine, and in 1824 became a member of the
Carbonari, a revolutionary secret society. He took part in the July Revolution of 1830 and
in 1839 he was condemned to life imprisonment for helping organise a failed insurrection
against Louis Philippe; he was subsequently pardoned. Until his death he took part in
every revolutionary activity in France and as a result spent much of his time behind bars.
His most significant work is Critique Social (Social Criticism) (1885) which was published
posthumously.
r
Hayward 1991; Hutton 1981; Mariel 1971;Spitzer1957.
BLATCHFORD, ROBERT
1851–1943. A socialist campaigner, Blatchford was born in Maidstone. Apprenticed as a
brushmaker, he ran away to join the army. He left in 1878 and became a journalist in
Manchester; this is said to have converted him to socialism. In 1890 he founded the Man-
chester Fabian Society and then in 1891 he founded the newspaper The Clarion. After the
Boer War he became a fervent supporter of the British Empire and in the 1924 election
he suppor ted the Conservatives. His most significant book was Merrie England (1893), a
collection of his socialist articles which sold extremely well. Other works include Britain for
the British (1902)andThe Sorcery Shop (1907).
BLYDEN, EDWARD
1832–1912. Blyden was a West Indian-born Christian preacher. He lived in both Liberia
and Sierra Leone and became one of the earliest ideologues of pan-Africanism. In 1851 he
emigrated to Liberia, and became tutor at Alexander High School and in 1862 Professor
of Classics at Liberia College – a post he held until 1871. He held a variety of positions
in Liberia and Sierra Leone, including secretary of state and ambassador to the Court of St
James. His first pamphlet A Voice from Bleeding Africa was published in 1856, but his major
work is Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (1887) in which he argued that Islam suited
African conditions better than Christianity, especially in its European missionary version.
r
Blyden 1908.
939
Biographies
BONALD, LOUIS-GABRIEL-AM BROISE, VICOMTE DE
1754–1840. Born into a family of provincial nobility, Bonald was the mayor of Millau in
France from 1785–90.In1791, having turned against the Revolution, Bonald emigrated
from France to Coblenz (headquarters of the royal princes) and thence to Heidelberg, where
he stayed until the autumn of 1795,writingTh
´
eorie du Pouvoir Politique et Religieux (1796).
This work laid out his counter-revolutionary theory of power: a new science of society,
in which families and society – a ‘group of relationships’ – were prior to the individual;
likewise, language was prior to thought. Bonald insisted that power had a religious basis, and
has therefore often been labelled as a ‘theocrat’, along with Joseph de Maistre. Through his
work Du Divorce (1801), Bonald influenced the harshening of the terms of French divorce
law (in 1802). He later lobbied successfully to repeal the divorce law altogether (in 1816).
Admired by Napoleon I, Bonald was elected to the Chamber of Deputies and in 1823 he
became a peer of France. After 1830, Bonald resigned his peerage in protest at the liberal
revolution.
r
Barclay 1967; Cohen 1969;Klinck1996; Moulini
´
e 1915;Nisbet1944; Reedy 1983, 1993, 1995.
BOSANQUET, BERNARD
1848–1923. Born near Alnwick, Bosanquet was the son of a reverend. He attended Harrow
and Balliol College, Oxford, where he encountered T. H. Green. Active in the Charity
Organisation Society, Bosanquet wrote extensively about social work. Impressed by the
work of F. H. Bradley, he produced a study of Knowledge and Reality (1885), followed by a
work on Logic (1888). His most significant work of political theory, The Philosophical Theory
of the State (1899), offered an elaborate idealist account of politics. It was metaphysics to
which he devoted most subsequent attention, notably in The Principle of Individuality and
Va l u e (1912)andThe Value and Destiny of the Individual (1913).
r
Carter 2003; McBriar 1987;Morrow2000; Nicholson 1990.
BRADLAUGH, CHARLES
1833–91. Born in London, the son of a solicitor’s clerk, Bradlaugh left home in 1849
and joined the army; however, he obtained a discharge in 1853.In1860 he founded The
National Reformer with Joseph Barker. Bradlaugh led free thought and radical movements in
Britain in the 1860s and wrote a series of pamphlets on politics and religion, founding the
National Secular Society in 1866.In1877 he published the controversial work by Charles
Knowlton, The Fruits of Philosophy, a work which advocated birth control. He was convicted
for publishing an ‘obscene publication’ but the case was dismissed on a technicality. He was
the first atheist to become a Member of Parliament, serving Northampton from 1880–91.
r
Bonner 1895;D’Arcy1982.
BRANDES, ERNST
1758–1810. Brandes met Edmund Burke in 1785, on a journey to England, and later became
one of Burke’s chief Hanoverian followers, along with August Rehberg. In 1786, Brandes
published an article praising the British constitution in the Neue Deutsche Monatschrift.In
1791,havingreadBurke’sReflections, he published a critique of the French Revolution,
Politische Betrachtungen
¨
uber die Franz
¨
ozische Revolution. While conceding that some kind
of revolution was inevitable, on account of the mistakes made by the French monarchy,
Brandes argued that the constitution of 1791 – which he saw as the product of a ‘Rousseau-
American-economist clique’ – was not appropriate for the French nation. He lamented
that the French constitution was not more like the British one. By 1792, Brandes’ hostility
towards the Revolution had deepened, and his
¨
Uber einige bisherige Folgen der Franz
¨
osische
940
Biographies
Revolution in Rucksicht auf Deutschland urged Germans not to fall prey to the revolutionary
spirit.
r
Beiser 1992;Droz1949; Godechot 1972; Raynaud 1989.
BRIGHT, JOHN
1811–89. A radical Quaker statesman, Bright was the son of a Rochdale cotton manufacturer
and this Quaker heritage would define his life, campaigning for causes that would improve
the lives of working people. Bright worked for a time in the family business and became
involved in family politics. When the Anti-Corn League was created in 1839 he became a
key member and together with his friend Richard Cobden, opposed the Corn Laws until
they were repealed. In the 1840s he also opposed factory leg islation. Bright promoted the
reform movement that led to the introduction of free trade. As a fine orator he drew large
crowds wherever he went. In 1843 he became Member of Parliament for Durham and
subsequently held seats in Manchester and Birmingham.
BRISBANE, ALBERT
1809–90. A social theorist, Brisbane was born to wealthy parents. At eighteen he left for Paris
to pursue his studies with the great social thinkers of Europe. He studied under Franc¸ois
Guizot in Paris and G. W. F. Hegel in Berlin, although remained uninspired. When he
returned to Paris he read a treatise of Charles Fourier and was greatly moved. He then
studied with Fourier until 1834 when he returned to the United States as a disciple of the
French socialists, an enthusiastic advocate of Fourierism. He started to lecture and wrote the
Social Destiny of Man (1840)andAssociation (1843), both explaining Fourier’s labour system,
His subsequent column in the New York Tribune ensured a national audience for Fourierism.
BROUSSE, PAUL
1844–1912. Born in Montpellier, Brousse became an activist of the International Working
Men’s Association (IWA) in the Midi during 1871–2. Forced to take refuge in Spain and then
Switzerland, he was a spokesman for the Bakuninist anti-authoritarians within the IWA and
then an active member of the Jura Federation. He became a f amous advocate of ‘propaganda
by the deed’ (1877), which led to his expulsion from Switzerland. On return to France in
the early 1880s, he broke with the anarchists and embraced a ‘municipal socialism’ that called
for public assistance and practical local reform. As a leader of the so-called ‘possibilist’ wing
of the Parti ouvrier franc¸ais (POF), he led the opposition to Jules Guesde and the Marxists
and became active in Parisian and national politics. When he died in 1912 he was part of
the Jaur
`
es wing of the Section Franc¸aise de l’Internationale Ouvri
`
ere (SFIO).
r
Guillaume 1985; Stafford 1971.
BRYCE, JAMES (FIRST VISCOUNT)
1838–1922. Bryce was a statesman and liberal, educated at Glasgow, Trinity College, Oxford
and Heidelberg. He was called to the Bar in 1867 and served as Regius Professor of Civil Law
at Oxford from 1870–93. Bryce gained recognition as a historian after publication of The Holy
Roman Empire (1864). Later The American Commonwealth (1888) was the first book to discuss
American institutions from the perspective of a historian and constitutional lawyer. A liberal,
Bryce was elected to Parliament in 1880 and when the Liberals returned to government in
1905 he became Chief Secretary to Ireland. From 1907–12 he was Ambassador to the United
States.
941
Biographies
BUONARROTI, PHILIPPE-MICHEL
1761–1837. Born in Pisa to an aristocratic family, Buonarroti was a French revolutionary.
He studied literature and law at the University of Pisa and became a fervent admirer of
Rousseau. This led him to publish the Gazetta Universale (1787) where he freely diffused
his revolutionary ideas. As a Freemason and a member of the secret society the Illuminati
de Bavi
`
ere he was constantly under police surveillance. He fled to Paris in 1789 and joined
the Jacobin Club, and was granted the title of French citizen by the Convention. He was
later imprisoned as a follower of Robespierre. There he met Gracchus Babeuf and his
work History of Babeuf’s Conspiracy (1828) recounts their unsuccessful plot to overthrow the
Directory Government of 1796.
r
Bax 1911; Lehning 1956; Thomson 1947.
BYRON, LORD GEORGE GORDON
1788–1824. Born in London and educated at Harrow and Trinity College Cambridge,
Byron took his seat in the House of Lords in 1809. His maiden speech in 1812 pleaded for
the humane treatment of riotous weavers. The publication of the first two cantos of Childe
Harolde in 1812 established Byron’s reputation as a poet. Following the scandalous separation
from his wife in 1816 Byron left England, settling finally in Italy. He died at Missolonghi
while on a military expedition in support of Greek independence. There are many political
references and allusions in Byron’s poetry, and especially in Don Juan (1819), but the most
developed statements of his aristocratic republicanism appeared in his two ‘history plays’,
Marino Faliero (1820)andThe Two Foscari (1821).
r
Gross 2001;Kelsall1987;Murphy1985; Thorslev 1989;Watkins1981; Woodring 1970.
CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGES
1757–1808. A student of the noted doctor L
´
eon Dubreuil, Cabanis frequented the salon of
Mme Helv
´
etius in Auteuil until the outbreak of the Revolution. Doctor to Mirabeau and
close friend of Condorcet, he survived the Terror to become a member of the Conseil des
Cinq-Cents (in 1797) and then the Napoleonic Senate, which he refrained from attending
because of opposition to Napoleon. He was a leading member of the Id
´
eologues, among
whom he was especially noted for his Rapports du Physique et du Moral de l’Homme (1802);
this broke with Condillac’s view that all psychic functions were transformations of sensations
and emphasised sensibility in its physiological sense, with the aim of enabling medicine to
become the basis of moral and social reform. He also wrote Observations sur les H
ˆ
opitaux
(1790), Du Degr
´
e de Certitude de la M
´
edecine (1798)andCoup d’oeil sur les R
´
evolutions et sur la
R
´
eforme de la M
´
edecine (1804).
r
Gusdorf 1978;Staum1980; Welch 1984.
CABET,
´
ETIENNE
1788–1853. A communist lawyer, Cabet was elected to the Chambre des D
´
eput
´
es in 1831.
However, as a result of his embittered attacks on the French government, he was found
guilty of treason and fled to England. There he came into contact with Robert Owen and
started to develop a theory of communism. Shortly after his return to France in 1839 he
wrote Voyage en I c a r ie (1840) setting out his picture of a utopian society which earned him
many followers. Like Owen he sought to put his ideas into practice and founded the Icarian
movement. In its wake several Icarian colonies were founded in the United States, which
lasted until the early 1880s.
r
C. Johnson 1974.
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Biographies
CAFIERO, CARLO
1846–92. Cafiero was born into a rich landowning family in Barletta and graduated in law
from the Univer sity of Naples. Converted to Marxian socialism in 1870, he organised Italian
sections of the International Working Men’s Association (IWA) according to the tenets of
Marx and Engels. In mid-1872, he was won over to Bakunin’s anarchist collectivism and
became a prominent advocate of what he termed ‘permanent revolt’. He spent the money
he inherited from his family for the anarchist cause, even buying a villa near Locarno for
Bakunin. A leader of the insurrections of 1874 and 1877, he was forced into exile. He was
mentally unstable in his final years (1882–92).
r
Hostetter 1958; Pernicone 1993; Ravindranathan 1988.
CALHOUN, JOHN C.
1782–1850. Born in South Carolina, John C. Calhoun was first elected to Congress in
1810; he was secretar y of war from 1817–25, vice-president from 1825–32, secretary of war
from 1844–5 and, perhaps most importantly, senator for South Carolina from 1832–43 and
from 1845–50. Calhoun began his political life as a fiery nationalist and ended it as a fiery
sectionalist. His theories, developed over the year s in a series of powerful speeches and in
two posthumous theoretical works, the Disquisition on Government and the Discourse on the
Constitution and Government of the United States, enjoyed a considerable vogue in the middle
of the twentieth century, though they are less often celebrated today.
r
Peterson 1987;Wiltse1944–51.
CAM BAC
´
ER
`
ES, JEAN-JACQUES-R
´
EGIS DE
1753–1824. Born in Montpellier in the nobility of the robe, he studied law and became
a member of the National Convention, in which he occupied himself with the legislative
work of the First Republic. In 1799 he became Second Consul of France behind Napoleon
and later a Prince of the Empire and Duke of Parma, and before the Restoration he devoted
himself to his major work, the redaction of the Code Napol
´
eon.
r
Bonnecase 1933;Gaudemet1935; Kelley 1984a.
CARLYLE, THOMAS
1795–1881. Born at Ecclefechan, Scotland and educated at Annan Grammar School and
the University of Edinburgh, Carlyle considered entering the church and the law before
embarking on a literary career in the early 1820s. His first publications dealt with aspects of
German literature, the anti-utilitarian and anti-materialist cast of which played an important
role in Sartor Resartus (1833). Some of Carlyle’s political ideas were sketched in Signs of the
Times (1829); they were treated more fully in Chartism (1839). This work dealt with the
condition of the lower classes and with problems of political leadership, themes that were
also prominent in Carlyle’s increasingly authoritarian politics presented in On Heroes and
Hero Worship (1841), Past and Present (1843)andLatter-Day Pamphlets (1850).
r
La Valley 1968;Lasch1991;Lee2004;Morrow2006; Rosenberg 1974; Vanden Bossche 1991.
CHAADAEV, P
¨
ETR IAKOVLEVICH
1794–1856. Born into an aristocratic family in Moscow, Chaadaev served as an officer in the
Russian army during the campaign against Napoleon and sympathised with the Decembrist
movement. He gave a philosophical formulation to his world-view in the eight Philosophical
Letters,writteninFrenchfrom1828–31. The first of these letters, developing a view of
Russia as a country ‘Forgotten by the Providence’, was published in the journal Te le s ko p
(1836) and caused a violent reaction in official circles: Chaadaev was declared mad and put
under medical surveillance. In the next year, Chaadaev wrote his Apology of a Madman which
943