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Biographies

on Napoleon III. He went into exile in Brussels between 1858 and 1862 to avoid being

imprisoned for the publication of De la Justice.

Doll

eans 1948;Hal

evy 1913; Haubtmann 1969, 1982; Hoffman 1972; Kelley 1994; Ritter 1969;

Sainte-Beuve 1947;Vincent1984; Woodcock 1956.

PUCHTA, GEORG FRIEDRICH

1790–1846. A member of an old Bohemian Protestant family and son of a judge, he studied

in N

urnberg and Erlangen and fell under the inﬂuence of Savigny and Niebuhr; and he

taught there as well as Munich, Marburg, Leipzig, and ﬁnally Berlin. His major works were

devoted to the history of modern Roman law and especially customary law as an expression

of the organic development of the German people.

Whitman 1990; Wieacker 1967.

RECLUS, ELIS

1830–1905. Born in Saint-Foy-la-Grande into a pious Calvinist family, Reclus came to

denounce religion and to espouse anarchist opposition to the state. He voluntarily left

France after Napoleon III’s coup of 1851, spending time in England, the United States and

Colombia. Returning to Europe in 1857, he became involved ﬁrst in Bakunin’s International

Brotherhood and then, during the 1860s, in the Parisian section of the International Working

Men’s Association (IWA). He was forced into exile following the Paris Commune of 1871,

this time going to Switzerland and Belgium. His greatest fame was for geographical works,

especially his huge Nouvelle G

eographie Universelle (19 vols. 1872–95). He was also well known

for works such as L’

Evolution, la R

evolution et l’Id

eal Anarchique (1898),wherehearticulated

a combative, strident anarchism.

Fleming 1979; Sarrazin 2004.

REHBERG, AUGUST-GUILLAUME

1757–1836. A friend of Brandes, Rehberg helped to propagate the ideas of Burke in Germany

and also contributed to the founding of the German Historical School of Law. In 1790,he

became literary critic responsible for reviewing French books for the Allgemeine Literature-

Zeitung, which led to him reviewing books dealing with the Revolution, of which he was

critical. In 1793 Rehberg synthesised his ideas on the Revolution in Untersuchungen

uber die

Franz

osische Revolution (Enquiries into the French Revolution). He argued that man cannot

be seen in isolation, but always as part of a particular society; that the French Constituent

Assembly was wrong to place sovereignty in the will of the people, since the result would be

‘only the will of some people’, mass rule; and that the Constituent Assembly was wrong to

try to stamp out Christianity. His cr itique of revolution was also a critique of pure Kantian

reason. Rehberg did not attack the Revolution outright – as Maistre and Bonald would do –

but argued that it had attempted to carry out reform in the wrong way.

Beiser 1992;Droz1949; Godechot 1972; Raynaud 1989.

REMUSAT, CHARLES FRANC¸OIS MARIE DE

(COMTE DE REMUSAT)

1797–1875. Born in Paris and known as a leading member of the Doctrinaires.In1830 he

was elected deputy for the Haute Garonne and ser ved intermittently in government until

the fall of the July Monarchy in 1848. Re-elected in 1848 and 1849,heleftFranceafterthe

coup d’

etat of Louis-Napoleon in 1851 and did not re-enter political life until 1869.In1871

he was appointed minister for foreign affairs and in 1873 was again elected to represent the

Haute Garonne. Elected to the Acad

emie Franc¸aise in 1840, he wrote widely on literary,

philosophical and political matters.

974

Biographies

RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE

1853–1903. Born in Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, Ritchie was a son of a minister. Educated at

Edinburgh University and Balliol College, Oxford, he was active in a range of progressive

causes and was a member of the Fabian Society from 1889–93. He was elected in 1894 to

the chair of logic and metaphysics at St Andrews University. Ritchie’s aim of combining

idealism and evolutionary science was apparent in his studies of Darwinism and Politics (1889)

and Darwin and Hegel (1893). He defended a range of state action in Principles of State

Interference (1891) and sought to socialise Natural Rights (1895). His was a progressive brand

of liberalism, which defended the congruence of idealism and modiﬁed utilitarianism.

Den Otter 1996; F reeden 1978.

RODBERTUS, JOHANN KARL

1805–75. Born in Greifswald, the son of a professor of Roman law, Rodbertus studied law in

ottingen and Berlin. He served brieﬂy in the Prussian justice ministry, but in 1830 turned

to economics and history and ﬁrst wrote on working-class conditions and needs in 1839.

Although involved sporadically in public affairs until 1849, he lived the rest of his life on

the Rittergut Jagetzow which he had purchased in 1835. He rejected liberal economic and

political principles, as well as doctrines of class conﬂict, but argued for a monarchist state

socialism that would improve the condition of workers. His publications appeared in diverse

forms and there is still no systematic edition.

Gonner 1899; Gottschalch 1969; Rudolph 1984.

ROSSI, PELLEGRINO

1787–1848. Born in Carrara in Tuscany and educated in the universities of Padua and

Bologna, he left for France and Geneva, where he taught Roman law. With the support of

Guizot he came to Paris to teach political economy as successor to J. B. Say in the Coll

ege

de France and later constitutional law in the law faculty. Later Guizot sent him to Rome as

ambassador to Pius IX. He was assassinated because of his conservative views in 1848.

Kelley 1984; Ledermann 1929.

ROTTECK, KARL VON

1775–1840. Born in Freiburg im Breisgau, Rotteck enrolled at the University of Freiburg

at the age of ﬁfteen. He obtained a doctorate in law and was appointed professor in 1798.

In 1818 he became Professor of Political Science and Law. In the aftermath of the French

Revolution of 1830 Rotteck fell under the spell of politics: in the 1831 elections he was

elected to a seat in the lower chamber of the Baden Landtag, which he held for the rest of

his life. He wrote proliﬁcally, including the nine-volume Allgemeine Geschichte vom Anfang der

Historischen Kenntniss bis auf unsere Zeiten (Universal History) (1812–26) which helped spread

liberal and constitutional views of German history. In the 1830sand1840s his main project

was the Staatslexicon oder Enzyklop

adie der Staatswissenschaften (1834–9) which he edited with

We l c k e r.

Kopf 1980.

ROY, RAJA RAM MOHUN

1774–1833. Born in Bengal, Roy came from a Persian-writing Mughal service family and

was inﬂuenced by Muslim monotheism and Christian ethics. A religious reformer, he is still

regarded as the ﬁrst modern Indian political philosopher. He issued an English abridgement

of the Ve d a n t a , and published The Precepts of Jesus (1820) and pamphlets hostile to both

Hinduism and Christian Trinitarianism. He read voraciously in English and later French and

died in England in 1833 while upholding the ‘rights’ of the now powerless Mughal emperor

975

Biographies

and condemning the abuses of the East India Company. He argued for the freedom of the

press and free trade, which, he believed, would banish the corruption associated with the

Company’s monopoly.

Bayly 1998.

ROYER-COLLARD, PIERRE PAUL

1763–1845. Born in Sompuis (Marne) and educated by his Jansenist mother. In 1809 he was

appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, where he opposed the sensationalism

associated with Condillac. With the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy he sat in the

Chamber of Deputies almost continuously between 1815 and 1839, becoming President

of the Chamber in 1828.In1830 he presented Charles X with the so-called address of

the 221 deputies, which effectively set the July Revolution under way. As leader of the

Doctrinaires it was through his parliamentary discourses, especially those defending freedom

of the press and representative government, that he established his reputation. He was elected

to the Acad

emie Franc¸aise in 1827. Between 1835 and 1845 Royer-Collard was engaged in

correspondence with Alexis de Tocqueville.

RUGE, ARNOLD

1802–80. Ruge was an activist in the student movement, the Burschenschaft,intheearly1820s,

for which he was imprisoned for six years. In 1837 whilst at the University of Halle, he set

up the Hallische Jahrb

ucher, the main journal of the Young Hegelian movement, followed

from 1841–3 by the Deutsche Jahrb

ucher, once censorship had forced him to move the journal

to Saxony. With the enforced closure of this journal in 1843 at the behest of the Prussian

government, he moved to Paris. He broke with Marx over the question of socialism. In

1848 he was a radical member of the Frankfurt assembly, after which he stayed in exile in

England, settling in Brighton, where he died in 1880.

RUSSWORM , JOHN BROWN

1799–1851. John Brown Russworm was born in Jamaica in 1799. He graduated from

Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1826, the second African-American in the United

States to earn a college degree. In the same year he celebrated the half-century of the

American Revolution with a speech on the virtues of revolutionary transformation. He

went on to participate in two abolitionist newspapers, Freedom’s Journal and Rights of All.

Frustrated by the thought that slavery would never be abolished in America, Russworm

relocated to Liberia in 1829. There he served as superintendent of education, edited the

Liberia Herald, became governor of the county of Maryland, and recruited American blacks

to settle there until his death in 1851.

SAINT-SIM ON, CLAUDE HENRI DE ROUVROY, COM TE DE

1760–1825. Saint-Simon fought for the American colonies in their revolt against Britain,

and made and lost a fortune in land speculation during the French Revolution. For most of

his later life he lived in abject poverty, sur viving only through the generosity of a former valet

and the income from a small family pension. In his brilliant but unsystematic and disorganised

writings – for example, Lettres d’un Habitant de Gen

eve

a ses Contemporains

(1802), L’Industr

(1817), L’Organisateur (1819), Du Syst

eme Industriel (1821), Cat

echisme des Industriels (1823–4)

and, ﬁnally, Nouveau Christianisme (1825) – Saint-Simon opposed the destructive spirit of the

Revolution and proposed instead a positive reorganisation of society with leadership roles

variously assigned to industrial leaders and scientists. The normative goal was the well-being

of the ‘poorest and most numerous classes’.

Gouhier 1933–41;Manuel1963; Manuel and Manuel 1979;Weill1894.

976

Biographies

SAVIGNY, FRIEDRICH KARL VON

1779–1861. Born in Frankfurt am Main, he attended the University of Marburg, where he

took his doctorate in 1800.In1810, after the publication of his seminal Law of Possession,he

became Professor of Jurisprudence at the new University of Berlin, where he took an active

political as well as academic role. In 1814 he published his manifesto on codiﬁcation, The

Vocation of our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence and the ﬁrst volume of his monumental

history of Roman law in the Middle Ages, which established his leadership of the Historical

School of Law. Later there appeared his eight-volume treatise on The System of Contemporary

Roman Law.In1842 he was appointed head of the Prussian juridical system, and before his

retirement in 1848 he worked on legal reforms.

Kelley 1990;Whitman1990; Wieacker 1967.

SAY, JEAN-BAPTISTE

1767–1832. Of a Protestant Genevan family, Say was sent to England to begin a commer-

cial career. On his return to Paris he read Adam Smith and decided to devote himself

to economics and social reform. From 1794–1800 he edited the revolutionary periodical

La D

ecade Philosophique, Litt

eraire, et Politique, which was closely associated with moderate

republicanism and with the Id

eologue philosophical school. He served in the Tribunate, but

left after quarrelling with Napoleon, and devoted himself to cotton manufacture (at Auchy

in the Pas de Calais). Say’s most important work, the Tr a it

ed’

Economie Politique (l803), went

through many editions and was a primary text in spreading classical political economy on

the continent. He also published a Cours Complet d’

Economie Politique Pratique (1828–30), and

in 1831 became Professor of Political Economy at the Coll

egedeFrance.

Blaug 1991; Guillaumont 1969; Hollander 2005;Sowell1972; Welch 1984; Whatmore 2000.

SCHILLER, FRIEDRICH

1759–1805. Schiller was bor n into a medical family in W

urttemberg and studied medicine

at the Karlsschule. He served brieﬂy as an army doctor, but was arrested after the production

of his play Die R

auber (1781), because of its stinging indictment of oppressive rule. This

play ﬁgured in the Sturm und Drang movement, which attacked complacency, and stressed

feeling and sensibility, contributing in various ways to romanticism a nd the Young German

tendency. Escaping from W

urttemberg, Schiller met Goethe, and moved to Weimar in 1787.

With Goethe’s assistance, he was appointed Professor of History and Philosophy at Jena in

1789, and undertook an intensive study of Kant, notably the Critique of Judgement, leading

to the publication of

Uber Anmut und W

urde (1793),

Uber Na

ıve und Sentimentale Dichtung

(1795–6), and his most famous philosophical work,

Uber die

Asthetische Erziehung des Menschen

(1795).

Sharpe 1995; Wilkinson and Willoughby 1967.

SCHLEGEL, KARL WILHELM FRIEDRICH (AFTER 1815:

VON SCHLEGEL)

1772–1829. Born in Hannover, the son of a civil servant, Schlegel was educated at the

universities of G

ottingen and Leipzig. With his brother (A. W. Schlegel) he was at the core

of the group of writers in Jena who were ﬁrst identiﬁed as ‘romantics’; the brothers Schlegel

produced the important quarterly Athenaeum in 1799. After serving brieﬂy as a Privatdozent

at Jena in 1801 Schlegel continued his studies in Paris. In 1808 he became a Roman

Catholic and from 1809 he served in the Vienna chancery. Statements of Schlegel’s mature

and generally conservative political ideas can be found in Die Entwicklung der Philosophie

(1804–5), Die Signatur des Zeitalters (1820–3)andPhilosophie des Lebens (1827).

Aris 1936;Beiser1992, 2003; Eichner 1970;Frank1995;Hendrix1962.

977

Biographies

SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL

1768–1834. Born in Breslau, educated by the Moravian Brethren and at the University

of Halle. Having been ordained in the Reformed Church Schleiermacher was appointed

assistant pastor in Landsberg in 1794 and pastor to the Charit

e Hospital in Berlin in 1796.He

was Professor of Theology at Halle from 1804–7 and at the University of Berlin from 1810.

In 1797 Schleiermacher met Friedrich Schlegel (q.v.) and became closely attached to him.

His nationalistic sermons during the war years attracted large audiences. Schleiermacher

lectured on the state in Berlin in 1809, 1817, 1829 and 1833.Aversionofthe1829 lectures

derived from student notes was published in 1845 as Lehre vom Staat.

Dawson 1966; Holstein 1972; Hoover 1989, 1990; Redeker 1973; Schleiermacher 1988.

SCHOPENHAUER, ARTHUR

1788–1860. The son of a wealthy merchant family, Schopenhauer was born in Danzig, but

moved to Weimar after the death of his father in 1805. After studying philosophy in Berlin

from 1811 to 1813, he unsuccessfully rivalled Hegel as a univer sity lecturer there, scheduling

his classes at the same time. He moved to Frankfurt in 1831, living from his estate. Though

published in 1819, his most important work, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung,wentlargely

unnoticed until after the revolutions of 1848, when its profound pessimism struck a cultural

chord, inﬂuencing Wagner and Nietzsche in different ways. His other writings include

Uber

die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom Zureichenden Grunde (1813) and a miscellany, Parerga und

Paralipomena (1851). He died in 1860 in Frankfurt.

Janaway 1997;Luft1988.

SCHULZE-DELITZSCH, HERMANN

1808–83. A German liberal politician and economist, born in Delitzsch in Prussian Saxony.

Schulze-Delitzsch studied law in Leipzig and Halle. He entered the National Assembly in

1848 and adopted the name of Delitzsch to distinguish himself from other Schulzes. In

1851 he withdrew and returned to Delitzsch to devote himself to the social reform and

the development of co-operation in Germany. He was responsible for the foundation of

the system of Vorschussvereine (people’s savings banks) and also mercantile and consumer

co-operatives and in 1859 founded the Genossenschaftstag,ageneralassociationofGerman

co-operatives. As a liberal nationalist he was one of the politicians behind the foundation of

the Nationalverein, which supported German uniﬁcation.

SEELEY,J.R.(SIRJOHNROBERT)

1834–95. Seeley was an English historian, born in London and educated at Cambridge. In

1863 he was appointed Professor of Latin at University College London, and from 1869 until

his death he served as Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge. Seeley ﬁrst came

to wide public attention with the anonymous publication of a religious polemic, Ecce Homo

(1865). His most signiﬁcant book was The Expansion of England (1883). In it he expounded

his view of history as a ‘school of statesmanship’, and offered both a historical analysis of the

rise of the British Empire and a defence of the value of the settler colonies. His other main

publications are: The Life and Times of Stein, or, Germany and Prussia in the Napoleonic Age

(3 vols. 1878), Natural Religion (1882) and, posthumously, The Growth of English Policy (1895)

and Introduction to Political Science (1896).

Bell 2007; Burrow, Collini and Winch 1983; Wormell 1980.

SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE

1792–1822. Born at Warnham in Sussex and educated at Eton and Oxford, Shelley was

expelled from Oxford in 1811 for circulating a series of arguments on ‘The Necessity of

978

Biographies

Atheism’. Shelley was strongly inﬂuenced by William Godwin with whose daughter, later

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, he eloped in 1814. Shelley left England in 1818 to settle in

Italy where he was an intimate of Lord Byron. Shelley’s political views appeared in many

of his poetic works, especially in Queen Mab (1821), The Revolt of Islam (1818), The Masque

of Anarchy (1832)andPrometheus Unbound (1820) and in a series of pamphlets written in

connection with a visit to Ireland in 1812, but they were expounded most systematically in

A Philosophical View of Reform (1819)andIn Defence of Poetry (1821).

Brinton 1966; Dawson 1980; Hoagwood 1988; Scrivener 1982; Thorslev 1989.

SIDGWICK, HENRY

1838–1900. Born at Skipton in Yorkshire, Sidgwick was the son of a headmaster. Educated

at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was elected a fellow in 1859. Concerned

throughout the 1860s with the problem of belief, his growing doubts led him to resign

his fellowship in 1869. His most enduring work, The Methods of Ethics (1874), examined

the philosophical basis of morality. He was appointed to the Knightbridge chair of moral

philosophy in 1872.In1883 he published The Principles of Political Economy (1883), which,

like The Elements of Politics (1891), was much concerned with the role of the state. Sidgwick

was a determined campaigner for women’s education and an active participant in the ethical

societies movement.

Collini 2001; Burrow, Collini and Winch 1983; Schultz 1992, 2004.

SISMONDI, JEAN CHARLES L

EONARD SIMONDE DE

1773–1842. A Swiss historian, critic and economist, Sismondi was a member of the ‘Coppet

circle’ surrounding Mme de Sta

el, and he shared her political views. These are evident in his

pioneering Histoire des R

epubliques Italiennes du Moyen

Age (1807–18). In his De la Litt

erature

du Midi de l’Europe (1813), Sismondi was one of the ﬁrst to portray literature as the result of

social and political institutions. As an economist, he was at ﬁrst a rather orthodox follower

of Adam Smith, but his most impor tant economic work, the pessimistic Nouveaux Principes

d’

Economie Politique (1819), contained a fundamental critique of the basic axioms of the

classical economists. He argued that competition did not tend to establish an equilibrium

between production and consumption, and that economic crises were produced by under-

consumption on the part of the working classes, on whose behalf he demanded protections

from the unacceptable consequences of the new industrial order.

Guillaumont 1969;Leroy1962; Procacci 1983.

SOLOVIEV, VLADIM IR SERGEEVICH

1853–1900. Born in Moscow, son of a famous historian, Soloviev was educated at Moscow

University, where he later taught philosophy for a while. While teaching he started to work

on the unﬁnished Philosophical Principles of Integral Knowledge.In1877 he relinquished his

university position due to his aversion to academic politics and moved to St Petersburg, where

he gave the hugely successful lecture series on the theme of Godmanhood, later published

as Lectures on Divine Humanity.In1880 he defended his doctoral dissertation but spoilt any

chances of obtaining a professorship by appealing to the Tsar to pardon the regicides of his

father Alexander III. He encountered great opposition to his writings and in particular to his

activity in promoting the union of Eastern Orthodoxy with the Roman Catholic Church.

Losev 1990; Stremoukhoff 1979; Walicki 1987.

SORAI, OGYU

1666–1729. Born in Edo (now Tokyo), Ogyu Nabematsu took the pen name ‘Sorai’. His

father oversaw Sorai’s study of the neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi. Sorai gained attention

979

Biographies

for his grasp of Zhu Xi’s teachings and subsequently became grand chamberlain to Shogun

Tsunayoshi. By 1717, Sorai had rejected neo-Confucianism in favour of his own brand

of kogaku (ancient learning). He is most famous for his works, the Bend

o (Discerning the

Meaning of the Way) and Bemmei (Discerning the Meanings of Philosophical Terms), which

called for a revival of the ancient Chinese philosophy of the six classics. His Ta i h e i s a k u

(Plan for an Age of Great Peace) and Seidan (Discourses on Political Economy) advised that

urban-based samurai be relocated in rural areas away from the vices of towns.

SOUTHEY, ROBERT

1774–1843. Born in Bristol and educated at Westminster School and at Balliol College,

Oxford, Southey’s early deism and Unitarianism prevented him from fulﬁlling his family’s

wish that he enter the Church of England. In 1794–5 he was associated with Coleridge

on the Pantisocratic project. Thereafter, having toyed brieﬂy with law and politics, he

settled on a career in literature. Southey’s literary output was vast; he wrote for the Tory

Quarterly Review from 1808–39 and was appointed Poet Laureate in 1813. He was friendly

with Wordsworth from 1795. Southey’s mature political views were expressed in his poetry,

but the most important statements appeared in his numerous contributions to the Quarterly

(some of which were collected in 1832 as Essays)andinSir Thomas More (1829).

Carnall 1960; Eastwood 1989;Mendilow1986;Story1997.

SPENCER, HERBERT

1820–1903. A self-taught polymath, indefatigable writer and researcher, Spencer ﬁrst worked

as a civil eng ineer for the London and Birmingham Railway Company. His writings spanned

an extraordinary range of topics in evolutionary philosophy, psychology, sociology, political

ethics and educational theory. His energetic advocacy of individualism, powerful endorse-

ment of progress and his championing of evolution made him one of the central intellectual

ﬁgures of his age, whose ideas had far-reaching inﬂuence, perhaps most notably in the United

States. He became one of the foremost ambassadors of science and the so-called scientiﬁc

point of view theory during the second half of the nineteenth century. His landmark pub-

lications included Social Statics (1850), Principles of Psychology (1855), First Principles (1862),

Principles of Biology (1864–7), Man versus the State (1884)andPrinciples of Sociology (1879–93).

Ferri 1905;Francis2007; Hofstadter 1955b; Jones and Peel 2004; Moore 2002b; Peel 1971;

Spencer 1908; Wiltshire 1978.

STAHL, FRIEDRICH JULIUS

1802–61. Born in Munich of a Jewish family, he became a Lutheran and studied and taught

law at various universities before becoming Professor of Ecclesiastical Law at Berlin in 1840.

Under the inﬂuence of Schelling and Lutheran, Stahl wrote his great work Die Philosophie

des Rechts nach Geschictlicher Ansicht (1830–7) (The Philosophy of Law from a Historical

Standpoint). He retired after 1858.

Whitman 1990.

STANTON, ELIZABETH CADY

1815–1902. Women’s rights activist, feminist and writer, born in Johnstown, New York

to a wealthy family, Elizabeth Cady Stanton was educated at the Troy Seminary School

and married the abolitionist Henry B. Stanton in 1840. She organised with Lucretia Mott

the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, which was considered the founding moment of the

American women’s rights movement. From 1852 onwards she closely collaborated with

Susan B. Anthony, promoting women’s rights – particularly the right to vote – and in 1869

they formed the National Woman Suffrage Association. Her most signiﬁcant work was the

980

Biographies

three-volume History of Woman Suffrage (1881–6), compiled with Susan B. Anthony and

Matilda Joslyn Gage.

DuBois 1999;Kraditor1981;Sigerman2001.

STEPHEN, JAMES FITZJAMES

1829–94. A jurist and journalist and brother of Sir Leslie Stephen, he was educated at Eton

and Cambr idge and admitted to the Bar in 1854.From1869–72 he was the legal member

of the viceroy’s council in India, and helped codify and reform Indian law. Stephen served

as a judge of the High Court of Justice from 1879–91 and became a baronet in 1891.He

wrote widely on ethics, literature and current topics for periodicals but his main interest was

jurisprudence. His main works were the General View of the Criminal Law (1863), an attempt

to explain the principles of English law, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (1873)andtheHistory of

the Criminal Law of England (1883).

Colaiaco 1983;Smith1988;Stephen1991.

STEPHEN, LESLIE

1832–1904. Born in London, Stephen was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. An active

Alpinist, much of his early writing was devoted to mountaineering. His career as a Cam-

bridge don was curtailed by his growing agnosticism, which led eventually to resignation

from his fellowship. He subsequently pursued an energetic path in journalism. His major

works in intellectual history included his History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century

(1876). Best known now as Virg inia Woolf’s father and the ﬁrst editor of the Dictionary of

National Biography, works such as The English Utilitarians (1900) earned him a considerable

contemporary reputation as a biographer and historian.

Annan 1984; Collini 1993.

STIRNER, MAX (JOHANN CASPER SCHM IDT)

1806–56. Born in Bayreuth, Bavaria, Stirner studied philosophy at the University of Berlin

under Schleiermacher, Marheineke and Hegel, completing his studies in 1834. He became

a teacher in Berlin in 1839 and in 1842 published Das unwahre Prinzip unserer Erziehung

(The False Principle of our Education) and Kunst und Religion (Art and Religion) in der

Rheinische Zeitung. His magnum opus Der Einzige und Sein Eigentum (The Ego and Its Own)

was published in 1844. Stirner translated Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations into German

in 1847. His last book, Geschichte der Reaktion (History of the Reaction), was published in

1852.

STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH

1808–74. A theologian, born in Ludwigsburg, Germany, Strauss studied for the Church at

ubingen, and lectured on philosophy as a disciple of Hegel. In his Leben Jesu (1835–6,

translated by George Eliot, 1846) he argued that the supernatural element of the Gospels

was a collection of historical myths created by popular legend. The book raised such a storm

of controversy that he was dismissed, and also debarred from taking up a professorship at

urich in 1839. His other major work was Die Christliche Glaubenslehre (1840–1), a review

of Christian dogma. He later lived in Ludwigsburg and Darmstadt, where he worked as a

legislator while continuing to write.

Cromwell 1974;Harris1982.

STRUVE, GUSTAV VON

1805–70. Republican lawyer and leader in the 1848 Baden uprising. Born in Munich, a

descendant of minor Russian nobility, Struve became a lawyer in Mannheim (Baden). His

981

Biographies

idea of radical democracy included demands for religious reform, Jewish emancipation,

women’s rights and vegetarianism. His Grundz

uge der Staatswissenschaft (Outlines of Political

Science) (1847) called for a federative and democratic republic, but when the Frankfurt pre-

Parliament rejected these proposals, Struve – together with Hecker – proclaimed a republic in

Konstanz and joined the uprising and in 1849 the Baden provisional republican government.

In 1849 he published one of the ﬁrst histories of the Baden Revolution (Geschichte der drei

Volkserhebungen in Baden). In exile in New York he supported Abraham Lincoln and the

North in the American Civil War.

Reiß 2004.

SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM

1840–1910. Born in Paterson, New Jersey, Sumner graduated in theology from Yale in 1863.

In 1868 he was appointed to the faculty of Yale Univer sity where he remained for the rest of

his life, becoming Professor of Political and Social Science in 1872.Inthe1890s he turned to

the pursuit of sociology, returning to politics to oppose the expansionist Spanish American

War and the annexation of the Philippines. His major sociological contribution was Folkways

(1906). This work was originally intended as part of a monumental Science of Society,which

did not appear until seventeen years after his death with the joint authorship of Albert Keller.

Sumner was a ﬁercely independent thinker who was quite capable of blunt criticism of the

wealthy elites whose cause he usually championed.

Hofstadter 1992; Keller 1933;Starr1925.

TAINE, HIPPOLYTE

1828–93. A French philosopher, historian and critic born in Vouziers in the Ardennes, Taine

was educated in Paris at the Coll

ege Bourbon and then at the

Ecole Normale Sup

erieure.

As a teacher of art and aesthetics at the

Ecole des Beaux-Arts from 1864–83, attempting to

apply the scientiﬁc method to the study of the humanities, he became known as one of the

most revered advocates of French positivism. Taine wrote many philosophical works, and

also pieces that were highly critical of French, Italian and English art and literature at the

time. He is most famous for his history of the French Revolution, LesOriginesdelaFrance

Contemporaine (1876–99).

T’AO, WANG

1828–97. Born in the Kiangsu Province, he studied the Confucian classics in preparation for

entry into the Civil Ser vice but left for Shanghai in 1848 after failing the second examination.

In 1849 he was appointed the Chinese editor of the London Missionary Society, but when

accused of passing information to Taiping rebels in 1862 he ﬂed to Hong Kong. Here he

met the missionary James Legge and for over ten years he assisted him with the translation

of Confucian classics. In the 1860s he became editor of the Hong Kong News and in 1873

he founded his own Chinese language newspaper. During the 1870sand1880sWangwrote

proliﬁcally, and his writings advocating the adoption in China of Western learning have

ensured him of an enduring historical importance.

Cohen 1974.

TAYLOR, HARRIET

1807–58. Taylor (born Harriet Hardy) sustained a long friendship and intellectual partnership

with J. S. Mill during her marriage to John Taylor. Harriet bore three children by her

husband, but eventually moved out of the family home in order to devote herself to Mill.

After John Taylor’s death in 1849, Mill and Taylor married in 1851. Mill attributed g reat

intellectual powers and inﬂuence to Taylor, but their contemporaries (and some historians)

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Biographies

disagreed. Taylor certainly helped Mill to revise and edit his works, and Mill attributed to

her the ‘Enfranchisement of Women’ article published in the Westminster Review in 1851.

Mill also acknowledged her inﬂuence, and that of her daughter Helen Taylor Mill, on his

1869 The Subjection of Women. Harriet Taylor died in 1858 in Avignon.

Jacobs 2002.

TAYLOR, JOHN ‘OF CAROLINE’

1753–1824. A political philosopher born in Virginia, Taylor was orphaned at the age of ten

and then sent by his uncle to the College of William and Mary where he studied law. He

fought in the American Revolution, reaching the rank of major. Taylor was a member of the

Senate from 1792–4, 1803 and 1822–24. He believed strongly in the rights of individual states

and thus opposed the ratiﬁcation of the constitution and in 1798 introduced the Virginia and

Kentucky Resolutions in the Virginia legislature. Taylor’s most famous work is An Inquiry

into the Principles and Policy of the Government of the United States (1814), which opposed the

growth of federal power and the damage it might cause to democracy and agriculture.

Simms 1932.

THIERRY, AUGUSTIN

1795–1856. Journalist and then founder of the ‘new history’ in Restoration France, Thierry

wrote on historical method and many aspects of French history, including the Norman

Conquest, Histoire de la Conqu

ete de l’Angleterre par les Normands (1825) and the rise of the

Third Estate and its ‘liberties’, for which he published a collection of medieval documents

in the series founded by Guizot.

Gossman 1976; Mellon 1958; Smithson 1972.

THOMPSON, WILLIAM & WHEELER, ANNA

1775–1833. Born into a wealthy Anglo-Irish family, Thompson spent his life writing on the

co-operative movement, socialism and political economy. He lived on his estate near Cork as

a philanthropic and innovative landlord, as well as a supporter of Catholic emancipation. He

never married, but sustained a long-standing friendship with Anna Doyle Wheeler (1785–

1848). They had met through their involvement in utilitarian circles, and it was Wheeler’s

inﬂuence that Thompson claimed inspired his 1825 Appeal of One-Half of the Human Race.

Wheeler had been unhappily married to Francis Massey Wheeler from the age of ﬁfteen.

Having raised two daughters, she left her husband and travelled to Guernsey and London,

and then moved to France in 1823. The death of her husband in 1820 had forced her to

support herself through translation work, including the work of Charles Fourier. She later

became closely involved in the circle around the Tribune des Femmes journal in Paris.

Dooley 1996.

THOREAU, HENRY DAVID

1817–62. Thoreau was born in Concord, Massachusetts and educated at Harvard College.

In 1837 he commenced an extensive journal and began his friendship with Ralph Waldo

Emerson. A naturalist, a believer in the simple life, and something of a hero to contemporary

environmentalists, he became increasingly offended by the institution of slavery. In 1846 he

was jailed overnight for failure to pay his poll tax in an anti-slavery protest and he published

his essay Resistance to Civil Government (1858), in which his anti-slavery views drove him to

the edge of anarchism. This article later became widely inﬂuential in the United States and

abroad after it was republished in 1866 under the title Civil Disobedience. He was an ardent

supporter of John Brown. He died of tuberculosis in 1862.

Emerson 1966;Harding1982; Richardson 1986;Taylor1996; Teichgraber 1995.

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