Jones G.S., Claeys G. The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought
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Biographies
TKACHEV, P
¨
ETR NIKITICH
1844–86. Born in Pskov province, Tkachev became the leading theorist of the Jacobin wing
of Russian populism. From 1868–9 he was a close collaborator of Sergei Nechaev. He is
said to have declared that the rebirth of Russia required the extermination of anyone over
twenty-five. In 1869 he was arrested and sentenced to exile and in 1873 he escaped to Zurich
where he tried to collaborate with Lavrov until he realised that differences between them
were too great. In 1874 he wrote an ‘Open Letter’ to Frederick Engels, accusing him of
giving up revolutionary ways and advocating only legal action. In 1875 he began to publish
his own journal Nabat (Toscin), propagating the seizure of power by a revolutionary minority
and the need for a strong centralised organisation.
r
Hardy 1977;Venturi1960; Walicki 1969; Weeks 1968.
TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS DE
1805–59. Born in Paris, Tocqueville trained in the law and visited America in 1830 to
study prison reforms. In 1839 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies where he posi-
tioned himself on the moderate left of the political spectrum. In 1848 he opposed the
Revolution but with his election to the Constituent Assembly in that year participated in
the writing of the constitution of the Second Republic. In 1849 he was elected to the Leg-
islative Assembly, becoming its Vice-President a nd briefly Minister for Foreign Affairs. With
the coup d’
´
etat of Louis-Napoleon he was briefly imprisoned and then barred from public
office. Dogged by ill-health he retired from public life and devoted himself to his historical
studies of France. He was elected to the Acad
´
emie Franc¸aise in 1841.HisRecollections were
published in 1893.
r
Beno
ˆ
ıt 2005;Drolet2003;Garnett2003;Mancini1994; Pierson 1996; Welch 2001.
TRISTAN, FLORA
1803–44. Born in Paris, the illegitimate daughter of a Per uvian aristocrat and a French-
woman. Her father’s death brought a drastic decline in her family’s standard of living, and
Tristan began work at a lithography studio. She married her employer Andr
´
eChazalin
1821, and had two children, but the marriage broke up in 1825. Unable to obtain a divorce,
Tristan was pursued by the obsessive Chazal, who eventually wounded her in a shooting
incident. She travelled to Peru in 1832 and spent two years trying unsuccessfully to claim
her father’s estate, and wrote of her experiences in Peregrinations of a Pariah (1838). Her other
travel literature included Promenades in London (1840). She befriended Charles Fourier, and
became interested in socialism. She died suddenly while touring France in 1844.
r
Dijkstra 1992.
TUCKER, BENJAMIN R.
1854–1939. Tucker was born in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts, to radical Unitarian
parents. A dedicated intellectual, he nonetheless refused to go to Harvard, instead enrolling
in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, from which he never graduated. At an early
age, Tucker became a major spokesperson for individualist anarchism. In 1872 he was an
associate editor of The Word;in1876, he translated Pierre-Joseph Proudhon’s What is Property?
He is best known for his long editorship of Liberty (1875–1902), a broadsheet dedicated to
anarchism, and especially to the individualist anarchist ideas of William B. Greene. In 1893,
a collection of Tucker’s writings was published as Instead of a Book, by a Man too Busy to Write
One. He retired to France in 1908.
r
DeLeon 1978;Martin1957; Reichert 1976.
984
Biographies
VIVEKANANDA, SWAMI
1863–1902. Born Narendranath Datta in Calcutta, he adopted the name Swami Vivekananda
in later life. Vivekananda graduated from the Presidency College in Calcutta and in 1886
completed studies in law at the Metropolitan Institution. There he fell under the influence
of Ramakrishna Paramahansa and became his chief disciple. After Ramakrishna’s death
in 1886, Vivekananda and others set up a monastery dedicated to his teachings. As a result
Vivekananda became one of the most influential Hindu thinkers and publicists. He addressed
the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 on Hinduism and then travelled in America and
England spreading the Vedanta philosophy and relig ion, dying in India in 1902. His works
have been collected in nine volumes.
r
Ashrama 1960.
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL
1823–1913. Born in Usk, Monmouthshire. Whilst teaching in Leicester, he came into
contact with an entomologist with whom he mounted a research trip to the Amazon in
1848. Though Wallace lost his specimens through shipwreck, on his return voyage he made
further explorations in the South Pacific region, where his examination of the difference
between Australian and Asian fauna eventually led him towards a theory of evolution close to
Darwin’s. It was Wallace’s paper ‘On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from
theOriginalType’,senttoDarwinin1858, which provoked Darwin into going public with
his own ideas. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (1870) promoted a spiritualistic
belief in a metabiological agency, something that set him apart from Darwin, and Wallace
also promoted socialism and was active in campaigning for women’s suffrage.
r
Loewenberg 1959.
WARREN, JOSIAH
1798–1874. Born in Boston, Warren moved to Cincinnati as a young man. In 1821,he
obtained a patent for a lamp fuelled by lard and opened a factory to produce and sell his new
invention. An admirer of Robert Owen, Warren moved his family to New Harmony, Indiana
in 1825. When it failed, Warren founded two other colonies in Ohio. He is best known for
his Time Store, a retail store where the sales price of each item was based on the cost of
labour required to produce it. He detailed his economic philosophy in his book Equitable
Commerce (1862). In 1851, Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews founded the individualist
utopian colony Modern Times on Long Island. When it collapsed in 1862,Warrenmoved
back to Boston, where he continued to promote individualist anarchism through lectures
and writing.
r
Bailie 1972; DeLeon 1978; Johnpoll and Klehr 1986; Reichert 1976.
WEITLING, WILHELM
1808–71. Weitling was born in Magdeburg, Prussia and was a tailor by profession. He was
the first early German socialist and Friedrich Engels saw him as the founder of German
communism. A member of the secret revolutionary society, the League of the Just, Weitling
moved to Paris in 1838 and joined the Parisian workers’ street protests in 1839. Whilst
staying in Switzerland he was arrested for revolutionary activities and extradited to Prussia,
from which he was allowed to emigrate to the United States. His main work, Guarantees
of Harmony and Freedom (1842), received praise from Bruno Bauer, Ludwig Feuerbach and
Mikhail Bakunin.
r
Wittke 1950.
985
Biographies
WELCKER, CARL
1790–1869. A lawyer, writer and politician, educated in Giessen and Heidelberg. Welcker
had chairs at both these universities before leaving to join the University of Bonn; however,
he was forced to leave for Freiburg as he was suspected of taking part in ‘demagogic intrigues’
in the light of the Karlbad Decrees of 1819. A belief in an empire of the German nation
and in federal constitutionalism dominated his political thought. Kieler Bl
¨
atter (1815–19),
compiled with Christoph Dahlmann, reflects this. In 1831 he was elected to a seat in the
Upper Chamber of the Baden Landtag, which he held for twenty years. In the 1830sand
1840s his work concentrated on the Staatslexicon oder Enzyklop
¨
adie der Staatswissenschaften
(1834–9) which he edited with Rotteck.
r
Dippel 1990.
WELLS, H. G. (HERBERT GEORGE)
1866–1946. A novelist, Wells was born in Bromley, Kent. At fourteen he was apprenticed
to a draper, and in 1884 he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Science in South
Kensington, writing articles in his spare time. He joined the Fabian Society in 1903 and the
works New Worlds for Old (1908)andThe Great State Essays in Construction (1912) describe
his aims in socialist terms. His faith in human progress was tested by the First World War and
he was prompted to write The Shape of Things to Come (1933), an anti-fascist warning. Wells
is perhaps most recognised for his early ‘science fiction’ works The Time Machine (1898), The
Invisible Man (1897)andTheWaroftheWorlds(1898) and his romantic novels Kipps (1905)
and The History of Mr Polly (1910).
r
Parrinder 1972;West1984.
WOLLSTONECRAFT, M ARY
1759–97. Born to a well-off London family who later suffered declining for tunes,
Wollstonecraft received little formal education, but in 1784 she set up a school, and two
years later began to write on girls’ education. She went on to write travel books, fiction
and works of philosophy and politics, and engaged in critical dialogues with the work of
Rousseau and Burke. In 1792 she published Vindication of the Rights of Woman; her unfinished
novel The Wrongs of Women, or Maria also dealt with the ‘woman question’. The following
year she had an illegitimate daughter by Gilbert Imlay; her unhappiness with Imlay led to an
attempted suicide in 1795. She married William Godwin in 1797, only to die in childbirth
later that year.
r
Sapiro 1992; Shanley 1998;Taylor2003.
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM
1770–1850. Born at Cockermouth and educated at Hawkshead Grammar School and St
John’s College, Cambridge, Wordsworth visited France in 1790 and 1791–2 and became
sympathetic towards the Girondist party. He and Coleridge issued the first version of their
Lyrical Ballads (1798)andin1798–9 they travelled to Germany. From 1802 Wo rd s wo r t h
settled at Grasmere and pursued a literary career. Wordsworth’s early republican sympathies
were formulated in an unpublished ‘Letter to Llandaff’ (1793). His mature views on the
virtues of traditional society were conveyed through his poems, particularly The Prelude
(1799–1805 but not published until after his death) and the Excursion (1814). Prose statements
of Wordsworth’s political ideas were presented in On the Convention of Cintra (1809), Tw o
Addresses to the Freeholders of Westmoreland (1818) and in his Postscript 1835 to Yarrow Revisited
and Other Poems.
r
Brinton 1966;Butler1988; Chandler 1984;Friedman1979;Roe1988; Woodring 1970.
986
Biographies
WRIGHT, FANNY
1795–1852. Born in Dundee, Scotland, Wright was orphaned early and raised by relatives
including James Milne, the Scottish progressive philosopher. She visited the United States in
1818, and published a positive account of American political democracy in 1821. Influenced
by Robert Owen’s New Harmony, she founded her own Tennessee community of freed slaves
in 1825. The sexual freedoms of her community caused great controversy, as did Wright’s
own ‘rational dress’ and support for socialism, sexual equality and universal suffrage. Her
community failed in 1828, and she became a well-known public speaker. Wright married
Guillaume d’Arusmont in 1831, a marriage which ended in divorce and a protracted battle
for Wright to keep her income from lecturing and publishing.
r
Bartlett 1994;Eckhardt1984.
ZASULICH, VERA
1851–1919. Zasulich was born to an impoverished noble family. Involvement in radical pol-
itics and contacts with the revolutionary Sergei Nechaev led to her arrest and imprisonment
from 1869–73. She achieved fame with her attempt to assassinate General Trepov, governor
of St Petersburg, in 1878. Although acquitted, she fled abroad to escape rearrest and lived
in political exile. She corresponded with Karl Marx, was a friend of Friedrich Engels, and
was one of the founders of the first Russian Marxist organisation, the Liberation of Labour
(Osvobozhdenie Truda) group in Geneva in 1883. Zasulich was commissioned by the Eman-
cipation of Labour group to translate a number of Marx’s works into Russian. With Lenin
and Plekhanov she was a member of the editorial board of Iskra. She returned to Russia after
the 1905 Revolution and died in 1919.
r
Bergman 1983.
ZETKIN, CLARA
1857–1933. Born Clara Eissner in Saxony, Zetkin moved to Zurich in 1882 and later to
Paris, to escape Bismarck’s restrictions on socialist activism. She had two sons with Russian
revolutionary Ossip Zetkin, and later married the artist, Georg Friedrich Zundel. Her
political involvement was on the far left of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), and she
suffered harassment and arrest for her anti-war stance during the First World War. From
1891 to 1917 she edited the SPD women’s newspaper Die Gleichheit (Equality). In 1907 she
became the leader of the SPD’s Women’s Bureau, and was influential in the establishment of
International Women’s Day. In 1919 she joined the German Communist Party; in 1933 she
was forced into exile in the Soviet Union, where she died later that year.
r
Coole 1993.
987
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