Hoffman D.M., Singh B., Thomas J.H. (Eds). Handbook of Vacuum Science and Technology
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
Handbook of Vacuum Science and Technology
by Dorothy M. Hoffman, John H. Thomas, Bawa Singh
• ISBN: 0123520657
• Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
• Pub. Date: October 1997
A Short Foreword
H.
F.
Dylla
When Dorothy Hoffman asked a contingent of her many colleagues in the vac-
uum science and technology community to contribute chapters to a new Handbook
of
Vacuum
Science and Technology, we could not have known that this handbook
would become Dorothy's last contribution to the field. Dorothy's untimely death
in December of 1996 deprived our world—the international vacuum science and
technology community—and the world of music—Dorothy was a concert pianist
with the Philadelphia Academy of Music — with a passionate voice for both the
science and
the
arts.
Dorothy
was
among
the
founding
members,
and the
first
woman
president, of the American Vacuum Society, incorporated in 1953 to strengthen
the coupling of advances in vacuum technology to the burgeoning fields of science
(particle and plasma physics, materials, science, space science) and engineering
(solid state electronics, thin film optics, materials processing) that require care-
fully controlled vacuum environments. When Dorothy retired in 1990 from her po-
sition as head of the Thin Film Laboratory at the David Samofif Research Center
in Princeton, New Jersey, she had helped ensure the growth and maturity of thin
film technology—an endeavor essential to the manufacture of microelectronics
and high-performance optics. Dorothy continued to contribute after she retired by
volunteering her talents and the benefits of her experience to the American Vacuum
Society. As part of the Society's 40th anniversary in 1993, Dorothy conceived the
project that resulted in this handbook. Thanks to the efforts of two of Dorothy's
colleagues from Sarnoff Laboratory, Bawa Singh and John Thomas, who guided
the final editing, our conmiunity now has a new compendium of the underlying
science, the technology for producing and controlling vacuum, and the numerous
applications that require vacuum. Those fortunate to know Dorothy and those
who will share her work in reading this handbook have much to thank her for.
H. F. Dylla
Past President, American Vacuum Society
Jefferson Laboratory
Newport News, VA
Preface
The Handbook of
Vacuum
Technology was conceived in 1994 as an addition to
Academic Press's Methods of Experimental Physics, Vol. 14: Vacuum Physics
and
Technology,
edited by G. L. Weissler and R. W. Carlson (1979). It was de-
cided that rather than add to the series Methods of Experimental Physics, a new
book should be produced. This handbook covers areas of vacuum technology not
covered in detail in Volume 14 or those where the technology has changed signifi-
cantly. A significant number of world-known authors have written chapters for
this handbook, where the chapters do somewhat overlap with the original Meth-
ods of Experimental Physics, Volume 14, to provide continuity. Readers are re-
ferred to Methods of Experimental Physics, Volume 14, for chapters covering
concepts such as basic vacuum equations, molecular transport, details on weld-
ing, soldering, glass systems (generally not employed in modern vacuum technol-
ogy),
protective devices, and many other significant older technology bases. We
emphasize the importance of Volume 14 of the Methods of Experimental Physics
as a basis for this introduction to vacuum technology.
This book has five parts: (1) an introduction; (2) creation of vacuum (pumps
and the technology presently used in their operation and design); (3) vacuum
measurements (pressure, partial pressure, gas flow, leak detection, calibration and
associated technology); (4) system components and design, including construc-
tion materials, valves, flanges, operation and maintenance, and system cleaning
and cleanliness and finally; (5) applications of high- and ultra-high-vacuum tech-
nology. The information included in this handbook is directed toward the practi-
tioner of vacuum technology and includes many references for detailed informa-
tion in specific areas of interest.
Part
1
is
a
brief overview of what Methods of Experimental
Physics,
Volume 14,
presented in detail. It is intended to give the reader details and references to past
literature. Readers should see Volume 14 and other cited references for funda-
mental information on the basic laws employed in vacuum technology as it is
practiced today.
xvii
xviii Preface
Vacuum technology has progressed in many different ways since its origin. To-
day, as in many other areas, vacuum technology has been driven toward automa-
tion of equipment and pumps. System design is automated through powerful
CAD programs available from conmiercial suppliers. Although very important,
software tends to have a short lifetime and changes rapidly. Consequently, the use
of these programs and their application is beyond the scope of this text. Readers
who need up-to-date information on this topic should contact suppliers of techni-
cal programs or use the Internet facilities that many software houses provide free
of charge.
Part 2 includes a user-oriented overview and complete discussion of modern
pumps used in the practice of vacuum. The discussions are written by experts in
the area of their specific pump technology. Included in this chapter are discus-
sions of the following: mechanical pumps (a continuation from Methods of Ex-
perimental Physics, Volume 14), diaphragm pumps, blowers, diffusion pumps,
cryogenic pumps, turbomolecular pumps, UHV pumps (sputter ion, sorption, get-
ter, including nonevaporable getter pumps). In addition to a description of pump
operation, we emphasize maintenance and areas of application. Future trends in
vacuum pump design are also presented.
Methods of monitoring vacuum processes have evolved over the past decade.
Part 3 of this handbook addresses this topic in detail. New concepts have changed
vacuum pressure measurement apparatus. In addition to covering the older pres-
sure measurement devices, this handbook covers in detail the use and mainte-
nance of rotating disk and capacitance manometers. The "art" of leak detection
and partial pressure analysis has become highly automated. Manufacturers of
leak detection equipment have included online data logging, improved sensitivity,
and automatic calibration of leak rates into the
10 ~^^
torr-liter/sec range. Partial
pressure analysis uses the now standard quadrupole-based mass spectrometer.
Automated instrumentation has interfaces that generally are acceptable to high-
speed desktop computers. We present applications of partial pressure analysis and
leak detection to provide the novice with a useful procedure for applying these
methods to current vacuum systems. Similar features are discussed for mass flow
(gas flow) measurements in Part 3.
With the accessibility of high-speed desktop computers, local control and mon-
itoring of various parameters encountered in vacuum technology have become an
integral part of modern vacuum systems. Using various monitors, dynamic real
time process control and automatic logging of process performance are provided.
These new attributes make vacuum production and processing routine, and pro-
vide a paper or digital log of the process parameters for later examination.
Part 4 discusses components used in modern vacuum system construction and
system design with the user in mind. With the advent of powerful high-speed
desktop computation available at low cost, many new computational programs
have been developed based on either the classical analog approach to mathemati-
Preface
xix
cal solutions or matrix manipulation approaches. These techniques allow rapid
system design, preconstruction understanding of actual operation, and methods of
automation in construction. Engineering CAD/CAM methods are regularly used
in producing vacuum components and systems.
Many components used in earlier vacuum systems have been refined with bet-
ter materials. Components tend to be automated through the use of electrical/
pneumatic controls. New system design materials, including aluminum, are cov-
ered in detail. Vacuum system operation, maintenance and the problems of clean-
liness and contamination are discussed for users. Pump selection and integrated
system design conclude this section, oriented to a "systems approach" to design-
ing integrated vacuum systems in processing materials.
Part 5 is dedicated to applications of high-vacuum and ultra-high-vacuum in
commercial products. The main applications of vacuum have been to deposit and
etch thin films of materials used in many areas of modern technology, including
the semiconductor industry (silicon wafer fabrication, high-density interconnec-
tions,
etc.), large-area deposition and web coating, and many other areas. To keep
the focus of this volume on vacuum technology, we have limited the number of
applications covered. These include sputtering, plasma etching, laser ablation,
chemical vapor and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, and surface an-
alytical applications of ultra-high-vacuum apparatus.
Ultra-high-vacuum systems have been employed in both ultra-clean film depo-
sition and surface analysis. The use of UHV in analytical apparatus follows from
the requirements of keeping the surface clean during a typical measurement. This
is true in most analytical approaches, because they are oriented toward the inves-
tigation of the surface or near surface structure, chemistry and composition. High
vacuum is required in applications requiring particle (and photon) mean free
paths great enough to be detected by in situ detectors. These techniques include
X-ray- or electron-probe-based equipment (for example, x-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy and auger electron spectroscopy). These methods are reviewed in
some detail, as they are practiced today and include many references to further
reading. Unique applications include a section on large-scale vacuum based
processes.
This handbook, along with the earlier text Methods of Experimental Physics,
Vol. 14, Vacuum Physics and Technology, provides a very complete and up-to-
date series on the generation of vacuum, vacuum fixturing, vacuum measure-
ments, system maintenance and operation, and vacuum applications as it is ap-
plied today. Our orientation has been on the practical use of vacuum technology.
We are sure that as a user of vacuum technology, you will find this handbook
invaluable.
List of Contributors
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the author's contributions
begin.
GARY
S.
ASH
(149), CTI-Cryogenics Division, Helix Technology Corporation,
Mansfield, Massachusetts 02048
WILLIAM H. BAYLES, JR. (257), The Televac Division, The Fredericks Company,
Inc.,
Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania 19006
How^ARD
M. BRADY (257), Electron Technology Division, The Fredericks Com-
pany, Inc., Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania 19006
JEFFREY T. CHEUNG (694), Rockwell Science Center, Thousand Oaks, California
91360
BENJAMIN B. DAYTON (484), Consultant, East Flat Rock, North Carolina 28726
EMIL DRUBETSKY (257), The Televac Division, The Fredericks Company, Inc.,
Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania 19006
H. F.
DYLLA
(789), Jefferson Laboratory, Newport News, Virginia 23606 and
Department of Physics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia
23185
F.
J. ECKLE (84), VACUUBRAND GMBH -h CO, D-97877, Wertheim, Germany
JAMES L. GARNER (509), SMC Corporation, Turtin, California 92780
RON
GOEHNER (257), Electron Technology Division, The Fredericks Company,
Inc.,
Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania 19006
MARSBED HABLANIAN (59, 116), (Retired) Varian Associates, Wellesley, Massa-
chusetts 02181
WALTER HELGELAND (433), Rigaku/USA, Inc., Danvers, Massachusetts 01923
HiNRicH HENNING (183), Leybold Vakuum GmbH, D-50968, Cologne, Germany
L. D. HiNKLE (376), MKS Instruments, Inc., Andover, Massachusetts 01810
DOROTHY HOFFMAN (deceased)
FRANK JANSEN (711), BOC Coating Technology, 4020 Pike Lane, Concord, Cali-
fornia 94524
XXI
xxii List of Contributors
CHUCK KRAFT
(444), Larson Electronic Glass, Redwood City, California 94064
LASZLO
V.
LiESZKOVSZKY (290), GE Lighting, Cleveland, Ohio 44112
DONALD M. MATTOX (553), Management Plus, Inc., Albuquerque, New Mexico
87122
R.
A.
OUTLAW
(335),
Teledyne Brown
Engineering:
Hastings Instruments, Hamp-
ton, Virginia 23669
JANDA K. PANITZ (446), Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mex-
ico 87185
V. PATEL, Ph.D. (628), Sarnoff Corporation, Princeton, New Jersey 08543
NEIL T. PEACOCK (391, 409), HPS Division of MKS Instruments, Inc., Boulder,
Colorado 80301
R. N. PEACOCK (463), Vice President for Development (Retired), HPS Division of
MKS Instruments, Inc., Boulder, Colorado 80301
MICHAEL J. POWERS (672), Commonwealth Scientific Corporation, Alexandria,
Virginia 22314
JAY RICHMAN (97), Consultant, Stokes Vacuum, Inc., King of Prussia, Pennsyl-
vania 19406
WILLIAM B. ROBBINS (761), 3M Corporate Research Laboratories, Thin Film
Technology Resources, St. Paul, Minnesota 55144
STEPHEN M. ROSSNAGEL (609), I.B.M., T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown
Heights, New York 10598
BAWA
SINGH
(1), David Sarnoff Research Center, Princeton, New Jersey 08543
JACK H. SINGLETON (214), Consultant, Monroeville, Pennsylvania 15146
JOHN H. THOMAS, HI (1, 731), 3M Research Laboratories, St. Paul, Minnesota
55144
Table of Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
Pt. 1
Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology and Surface
Physics
1
Pt. 2 Creation of Vacuum 57
Pt. 3 Vacuum Measurements 255
Pt. 4 Systems Design and Components 389
Pt. 5 Vacuum Applications 607
Pt. 6 Large-Scale Vacuum-Based Processes 759
CHAPTER
1.1
Vacuum Nomenclature
and Definitions
I.U
BASIC DEFINITION
The term vacuum
is
generally used
to
denote
a
volume
or
region
of
space
in
which
the
pressure
is
significantly less than
760
torr.
In the
traditional measure-
ment system, normal pressure is expressed
in
millimeters
of
a column
of
mercury,
and 760 millimeters
of
mercury
is
equal
to
1
standard atmosphere. The traditional
unit
of
pressure
is the
torr, which approximately equals 1 millimeter
of
mercury.
A perfect
or
absolute vacuum, which implies
a
space that
is
entirely devoid
of
matter,
is
practically unrealizable. For practical purposes, however,
and in
accor-
dance with
the
definition proposed
by the
American Vacuum Society,
the
term
vacuum
is
generally used
to
denote
a
space filled with
a gas at
less than atmo-
spheric pressure
[1].
In the metric,
or
meter-kilogram-second (MKS), system,
the
unit
of
pressure
is
the pascal.
In
general, however,
the
torr still remains
one of
the most widely used
units
of
pressure.
Table 1 lists conversion factors between some
of
the most gen-
erally used vacuum units.
1.1.2
PRESSURE REGIONS
OF
VACUUM
Measuring
a
system's pressure
is
the traditional way
to
classify the degree
of
vac-
uum. Nowadays, the general term vacuum refers
to a
region that consists
of
about
ISBN 0-12-325065-7 Copyright
©
1998
by
Academic Press
525.00
All
rights
of
reproduction
in any
form reserved.