Hawkes P.W., Spence J.C.H. (Eds.) Science of Microscopy. V.1 and 2

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

Chapter 5 High-Speed Electron Microscopy 435

1. Selected-area image-intensity streaking provided time resolution

of 3 ns and selected areas ≥500 nm.

This was applied to studies of

electron

94,95,99

and laser-induced

118,119

crystalli zation of metals and semi-

conductors, thermo capillary oscillations,

53,120

and solidiﬁ cation of laser-

induced melts.

53,69,120

2. Streaked imaging was used to study solidiﬁ cation,

ﬂ ow,

53,121,122

and evapora tion

121,122

of laser-pulsed samples.

3. High-speed imaging and three-frame movies with temporal/

spatial resolutions of 10 ns/200 nm, interpulse spacing >20 ns,

and

diffraction with time resolution of 10 ns were demonstrated.

Several techniques were employed to achieve the high time

resolution, including gating the electron detector,

108,122,123

rapid

beam blanking,

124

laser-induced thermal emission,

27–29,69,125

and ﬁ nally

laser-induced photoemission.

10,126

Nanosecond time resolution

studies, using the photoemission source, were carried out on hydro-

dynamic instabilities caused by chemocapillary, thermocapillary,

127

and mechanical stresses.

128

Phase explosion and plasma formation

of highly superheated metals were studied at the same time

resolution.

113,129

5 Future

5.1 Improving Time Resolution

5.1.1 Pulse Compression

To recap, the electron pulse duration at the sample is equal to the

single-shot time resolution of the DTEM. At present this is essentially

equal to the cathode laser pulse duration and is dictated by the exper-

iment’s ﬂ uence requirements and the electron gun brightness. However,

many methods exist for longitudinally compressing an electron pulse,

many of them having been developed by the accelerator community

for high-voltage RF electron guns. These involve passing the pulse

through specialized elements such as a microwave cavity operating

at a carefully chosen phase,

58,130,131

or static magnetic ﬁ elds in a

chicane,

132–134

α,

135

or other pulse-compressing

136

arrangement. These

devices are routinely used to compress multimegavolt pulses of ∼10

electrons down to picosecond or shorter durations, with normalized

emittance values ∼1 µm radian and ∼1% energy spreads. The desired

DTEM parameter space is very different, of order 200 keV, 10

electrons,

less than 0.1-µm radian emittance, and an energy spread of order one

part in 10

. Signiﬁ cant work will be required to adapt the technology,

pos sibly involving fundamental redesigns and entirely new ideas for

pulse generation and compression. The outcome of research in the

infant ﬁ eld of DTEM pulse compression is quite impossible to predict

at this time; future DTEM electron guns might look almost nothing

like the current designs. Pulse compression may be the only way to

dig deeply into the subnanosecond regime, however. Without increas-

ing the effective brightness of the electron source by crowding the

436 W.E. King et al.

electrons into a shorter pulse, there are many measurements (requiring

a combination of high ﬂ uence, small convergence angle, and high time

resolution) that will simply be impossible.

Even then, there will be fundamental limits. Electrons are fermions,

and can be compressed to a ﬁ nite density only in six-dimensional

phase space.

The best electron pulses produced to date are still

roughly four orders of magnitude short of this quantum degeneracy

limit, as they have been for decades.

Passive transformations to the

electron pulse (e.g., acceleration, lens action, and most compression

methods) can change only the shape of the phase space envelope, and

not its density

(also see Reiser,

pp. 62ff). Thus every compression

method that does not actually refrigerate the electron pulse will involve

trading off one design parameter against another.

5.2 Relativistic Beams

An alternate method to achieve high time resolution is to increase the

accelerating voltage of the electrons. RF guns with thermionic cathodes

have been used for many years for injection into storage rings

and RF

guns with photocathodes as sources for free-electron lasers (FELs).

Currently photocathode rf guns are the brightest electron gun sources

available.

Bright beams can be generated due to the high rf ﬁ elds

(typically 100 MV/m or more) used to accelerate the beam over a short

distance. The beams become relativistic in a few centimeters, quickly

reducing the space-charge force repulsion. (Space-charge force is

reduced for high-energy beams. Several books derive the space-charge

equations for both longitudinal and transverse space charge showing

the force varies as the Lorentz factor γ

−2

137,138

) The particles are typically

accelerated to ∼5–6 MeV depending on the rf amplitude and the elec-

tron beam launch phase.

It is conceivable that such a gun could be ﬁ tted to an electron optical

column suitably engineered for operation with 5–6 MeV electrons. This

would, however, require large-scale installations similar to previous

HVEM facilities. Two signiﬁ cant differences would be that the accelera-

tor would be less than 10% of the size of previous HVEMs and that

there would be no need for the elaborate and costly vib ration isolation

schemes that were needed. Further, because the duty cycle of the

pulsed instruments is small compared with CW instruments, it is pos-

sible that some of the radiation shielding requirements may be relaxed

in pulsed machines.

6 Conclusions

It appears that the growing interest in ultrafast science using optical

and X-ray methods will spawn a new group of investigations using

electrons. The potential for doing ultrafast diffraction experiments is

already well established. The scientiﬁ c case for extending this to ultra-

fast imaging with electrons is compelling. Technical hurdles remain to

be overcome but it is clear that imaging will play a role certainly for

experiments in which nanometer spatial resolution and nanosecond

Chapter 5 High-Speed Electron Microscopy 437

time resolution are required. It is also clear that experiments at time

resolutions previously inaccessible (nanosecond to millisecond) in

which space charge limitations are not a factor will also beneﬁ t from

this technology. Extension of this technology to femtosecond time reso-

lution and atomic spatial resolution is a worthy goal and conceptually

achievable. The beneﬁ ts that accrue from going to relativistic accelerat-

ing voltages may revive interest in high-voltage electron microscopes

with pulsed electron sources.

Acknowledgments. This work was performed under the auspices of the

U.S. Department of Energy by the University of California, Lawrence

Livermore National Laboratory and supported by the Ofﬁ ce of Science,

Ofﬁ ce of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Materials Sciences and

Engineering, of the U.S. Department of Energy under contract No.

W-7405-Eng-48.

References

1. Mourou, G. and Williamson, S. (1982). Picosecond electron-diffraction.

Appl. Phys. Lett. 41, 44–45.

2. Williamson, S., Mourou, G. and Li, J.C.M. (1984). Time-resolved laser-

induced phase-transformation in aluminum. Phys. Rev. Lett. 52,

2364–2367.

3. Williamson, S. and Mourou, G. (1982). Electron-diffraction in the picosec-

ond domain. Appl. Phys. B-Photo. 28, 249–250.

4. Ewbank, J.D., Schafer, L., Paul, D.W. and Benston, J. (1984). Real-time data

acquisition for gas electron-diffraction patterns. Abstr. Pap. Am. Chem. S.

188, 97-Anyl.

5. Elsayed-Ali, H.E. and Herman, J.W. (1990). Picosecond time-resolved

surface-lattice temperature probe. Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 1508–1510.

6. Dudek, R.C. and Weber, P.M. (2001). Ultrafast diffraction imaging of the

electrocyclic ring-opening reaction of 1,3-cyclohexadiene. J. Phys. Chem.

A. 105, 4167–4171.

7. Rua n, C.Y., Vigliotti, F., Lobastov, V.A., Chen, S.Y. and Zewail, A.H. (2004).

Ultrafast electron crystallography: Transient structures of molecules, sur-

faces, and phase transitions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 1123–1128.

8. Ruan, C.Y., Lobastov, V.A., Vigliotti, F., Chen, S.Y. and Zewail, A.H. (2004).

Ultrafast electron crystallography of interfacial water. Science 304,

80–84.

9. Siwick, B.J., Dwyer, J.R., Jordan, R.E. and Miller, R.J.D. (2004). Femtosec-

ond electron diffraction studies of strongly driven structural phase tran-

sitions. Chem. Phys. 299, 285–305.

10. Dömer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). High-speed transmission electron

microscope. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 74, 4369–4372.

11. Bostanjoglo, O. (2002). High-speed electron microscopy. Adv. Imag. Elect.

Phys. 121, 1–51.

12. Bostanjoglo, O., Elschner, R., Mao, Z., Nink, T. and Weingartner, M. (2000).

Nanosecond electron microscopes. Ultramicroscopy 81, 141–147.

13. Bostanjoglo, O. and Weingartner, M. (1997). Pulsed photoelectron micro-

scope for imaging laser-induced nanosecond processes. Rev. Sci. Instrum.

68, 2456–2460.

14. Bostanjoglo, O. and Heinricht, F. (1988). A laser pulsed high emission

thermal electron-gun. Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser. 105–106.

438 W.E. King et al.

15. Bostanjoglo, O., Tornow, R.P. and Tornow, W. (1987). Nanosecond trans-

mission electron-microscopy and diffraction. J. Phys. E. Sci. Instrum. 20,

556–557.

16. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1976). Stroboscopic study on ultrasonic

activity in electron-microscope. Mikroskopie. 32, 190.

17. Dömer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). High-speed transmission electron

microscopy of laser-pulsed metal ﬁ lms, splashing by a hydrodynamic

instability. Microsc. Microanal. 9, 358–359.

18. Dömer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2002). Stress effects in laser-pulsed chro-

mium ﬁ lms tracked by nanosecond transmission electron microscopy.

Adv. Eng. Mater. 4, 623–625.

19. Reiser, M. (1994). Theory and Design of Charged Particle Beams. New

York: Wiley, pp. xix, 607.

20. Reed, B. (2004). Propagation dynamics of femtosecond electron packets

and relativistic effects in ultrafast electron microscopy (UEM). (First

National Lab and University Alliance Workshop on Ultrafast Electron

Microscopies, Pleasanton, CA).

21. Faruqi, A.R. and Subramaniam, S. (2000). CCD detectors in high-

resolution biological electron microscopy. Q. Rev. Biophys. 33, 1–27.

22. Faruqi, A.R. and Andrews, H.N. (1997). Cooled CCD camera with tapered

ﬁ bre optics for electron microscopy. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A. 392, 233–236.

23. Qian, W., Scheinfein, M.R. and Spence, J.C.H. (1993). Brightness measure-

ments of nanometer-sized ﬁ eld-emission-electron sources. J. Appl. Phys.

73, 7041–7045.

24. Bluem, H., Todd, A.M.M., Cole, M.D., Rathke, J. and Schultheiss, T. (2003).

Recent advances in high-brightness electron guns at AES. Nucl. Instrum.

Meth. A. 507, 215–219.

25. Dowell, D.H., Bolton, P.R. and Clendenin, J.E. (2003). Slice emittance mea-

surements at the SLAC gun test facility. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A. 507,

327–330.

26. HerreraGomez, A., Vergara, G. and Spicer, W.E. (1996). Physics of high-

intensity nanosecond electron source: Charge limit phenomenon in GaAs

photocathodes. J. Appl. Phys. 79, 7318–7323.

27. Schafer, B. and Bostanjoglo, O. (1992). Laser driven thermionic electron-

gun. Optik. 92, 9–13.

28. Bostanjoglo, O., Heinricht, F. and Wunsch. F. (1990). Performance of a

Laser-Pulsed Thermal Electron Gun. Proc. 12th Intl Congr Electron

Microsc. San Francisco, pp. 124–125.

29. Bostanjoglo, O. and Heinricht, F. (1987). Producing high-current nanosec-

ond electron pulses with a standard tungsten hairpin gun. J. Phys. E. Sci.

Instrum. 20, 1491–1493.

30. Lewellen, J.W. (2004). Overview of High-Brightness Proceedings of

LINAC 842–846 (JACOW, Lübeck).

31. Brau, C.A. (2000). What brightness means. In: Rosenzweig J, Travish

G, Seraﬁ ni L, eds. The Physics and Applications of High Brightness

Electron Beams. Proceedings of the ICFA Workshop. World Scientiﬁ c,

pp. 1–27.

32. Michaelson, H.B. (1977). Work function of elements and its periodicity. J.

Appl. Phys. 48, 4729–4733.

33. Michelato, P. (1997). Photocathodes for RF photoinjectors. Nucl. Instrum.

Meth. A. 393, 455–459.

34. Baum, A.W., Spicer, W.E., Pease, R.F., Castello, K.A. and Aebi, V.W. (1995).

Negative electron afﬁ nity photocathodes as high performance electron

sources. SPIE 2522, 208–212.

Chapter 5 High-Speed Electron Microscopy 439

35. Togawa, K., Nakanishi, T. and Baba, T. (1998). Surface charge limit in NEA

superlattice photocathodes of polarized electron source. Nucl. Instrum.

Meth. A. 414, 431–445.

36. Saka, T., Kato, T. and Nakanishi, T. (2000). Spinpolarized electron sources

with GaAs-GaAsP superlattices for surface analyses. Surf. Sci. 454,

1042–1045.

37. Luh, D.-A., Brachmann, A., Clendenin, J.E., Desikan, T., Garwin, E.L., Harvey,

S., Kirby, R.E., Maruyama, T., Prescott, C.Y. and Prepost, R. (2003). Recent

polarized photocathode R&D at SLAC. AIP Conf. Proc. 675, 1029–1033.

38. Muggli, P., Brogle, R., Jou, S., Doerr, H.J., Bunshah, R.F. and Joshi, C. (1996).

Photoemission from diamond and fullerene ﬁ lms for advanced accelera-

tor applications. IEEE T. Plasma. Sci. 24, 428–438.

39. Modukuru, Y., Thachery, J., Tang, H., Malhotra, A., Cahay, M. and

Boolchand, P. (2001). Growth and characterization of rare-earth monosul-

ﬁ des for cold cathode applications. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B. 19, 1958–1961.

40. Yada, K. (1986). Researches of cathode materials for thermionic emission.

In: Imura T, Maruse S, Suzuki T, eds. Proc 11th Int Congr Electron Micros-

copy, Vol. 1, pp. 227–228.

41. Watari, F. and Yada, K. (1986). Photoemission from LaB

cathode using an

excimer laser. In: Imura T, Maruse S, Suzuki T, eds. Proc 11th Int Congr

Electron Microscopy, Vol. 1, pp. 261–262.

42. May, P.G., Petkie, R.R., Harper, J.M.E. and Yee, D.S. (1990). Photoemission

from thin-ﬁ lm lanthanum hexaboride. Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 1584–1585.

43. Travier, C. (1994). An introduction to photo-injector design. Nucl. Instrum.

Meth. A. 340, 26–39.

44. Girardeau-Montaut, J.P., Girardeau-Montaut, C., Aﬁ f, M., Perez, A. and

Moustaizis, S.D. (1995). Enhancement of photoelectric-emission sensitiv-

ity of tungsten by potassium-ion implantation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 66,

1886–1888.

45. Orloff, J. (1986). Development of the ZrO/W thermal ﬁ eld cathode. In:

Imura T, Maruse S, Suzuki T, eds. Proc 11th Int Congr Electron Micros-

copy, Vol. 1, pp. 211–214.

46. Nassisi, V. and Perrone, M.R. (1999). Generation and characterization of

high intensity electron beams generated from rough photocathodes. Rev.

Sci. Instrum. 70, 4221–4224.

47. Boussoukaya, M., Bergeret, H., Chehab, R., Leblond, B. and Leduff, J.

(1989). High quantum yield from photoﬁ eld emitters. Nucl. Instrum. Meth.

A. 279, 405–409.

48. Kawamura, Y., Jeong, Y.U., Akiyama, Y., Kubodera, S., Midorikawa, K. and

Toyoda, K. (1993). Generation of high-current photoelectrons using a sub-

picosecond ultraviolet-laser. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 2-Lett 32, L297–L299.

49. Korte, F., Serbin, J. and Koch, J. (2003). Towards nanostructuring with fem-

tosecond laser pulses. Appl. Phys. A.—Materials Sci. Process 77, 229–235.

50. Bergeret, H., Boussoukaya, M., Chehab, R., Leblond, B. and Leduff, J.

(1991). Short pulse photoemission from a dispenser cathode. Nucl. Instrum.

Meth. A. 301, 389–394.

51. Höbel, F., Dömer, H., Gartenschläger, C., Gernert, U., Nink, T. and

Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). A rugged cathode for photoelectron and DC

thermionic operation. In: Gemming T, Lehmann M, Lichte H, Wetzig K,

eds. Proc Micros Conf Microsc Microanal. Volume 9 Suppl. 3, 150–151.

52. Domer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). High-speed transmission electron

microscope. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 74, 4369–4372.

53. Bostanjoglo, O. and Nink, T. (1996). Hydrodynamic instabilities in laser

pulse-produced melts of metal ﬁ lms. J. Appl. Phys. 79, 8725–8729.

440 W.E. King et al.

54. Bostanjoglo, O. and Nink, T. (1997). Liquid motion in laser pulsed Al, Co

and Au ﬁ lms. Appl. Surf. Sci. 110, 101–105.

55. Bradley, D.J., Roddie, A.G. and Sibbett, W. (1975). Picosecond X-ray chro-

noscopy. Opt. Commun. 15, 231–236.

56. Hansen, S., Hereward, H.G., Hofmann, A., Hubner, K. and Myers, S.

(1975). Effects of space-charge and reactive wall impedance on bunched

beams. IEEE T. Nucl. Sci. NS22, 1381–1384.

57. Neuffer, D. (1979). Longitudinal motion in high-current ion-beams—

self-consistent phase-space distribution with an envelope equation. IEEE

T. Nucl. Sci. 26, 3031–3033.

58. Qin, H. and Davidson, R.C. (2002). Longitudinal drift compression and pulse

shaping for high-intensity particle beams. Phys. Rev. Spec. Top-Ac 5, 034401.

59. Ben-Yakar, A. and Hanson, R.K. (2002). Ultra-fast-framing schlieren

system for studies of the time evolution of jets in supersonic crossﬂ ows.

Exp. Fluids 32, 652–666.

60. Kosonocky, W.F., Yang, G. and Kabra, R.K. (1997). 360 × 360 element three-

phase very high frame rate burst image sensor: Design, operation, and

performance. IEEE T. Electron. Dev. 44, 1617–1624.

61. Reich, R.K., Rathman, D.D. and O’Mara, D.M. (2003). High-speed, elec-

tronically shuttered solid-state imager technology (invited). Rev. Sci.

Instrum. 74, 2027–2031.

62. Minor, A.M., Lilleodden, E.T., Stach, E.A. and Morris, J.W. (2004). Direct

observations of incipient plasticity during nanoindentation of Al. J. Mater.

Res. 19, 176–182.

63. Domer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). Phase explosion in laser-pulsed

metal ﬁ lms. Appl. Surf. Sci. 208, 442–446.

64. Rose, H. and Spehr, R. (1983). Energy broadening in high-density electron

and ion-beams—the Boersch effect. Adv. Electron. Electron. Phys. Suppl

13C, 475–530.

65. Kruit, P. and Jansen, G.H. (1997). Space charge and statistical Coulomb

effects. In: Orloff J, ed. Handbook of Charged Particle Optics, pp. 275–318.

(CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL).

66. Jansen, G.H. (1990). Coulomb Interactions in Particle Beams. (Academic

Press, San Diego).

67. Cowley, J.M. (1992). Imaging. In: Buseck P, Cowley JM, Eyring LE, eds.

High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy and Associated

Techniques, pp. 3–37. (Oxford University Press, Oxford).

68. Stadelmann, P. and Java, E.M.S. (2001). http://cimewww.epﬂ .ch/people/

stadelmann/jemswebsite/jems.html. (Institution, Lausanne).

69. Bostanjoglo, O. and Otte, D. (1993). High-speed transmission electron-

microscopy of laser quenching. Mat. Sci. Eng. A.—Struct 173, 407–411.

70. Loefﬂ er, K.H. (1969). Energy-spread generation in electron-optical instru-

ments. Z. Angew. Phys. 27, 145–149.

71. Egerton, R.F. (1986). Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy in the Electron

Microscope. (Plenum Press, New York).

72. Henderson, R. (2004). Realizing the potential of electron cryo-

microscopy. Q. Rev. Biophys. 37, 3–13.

73. Sun, K., Liu, J. and Browning, N.D. (2002). Correlated atomic resolution

microscopy and spectroscopy studies of Sn(Sb)O-2 nanophase catalysts.

J. Catal. 205, 266–277.

74. Egerton, R.F., Li, P. and Malac, M. (2004). Radiation damage in the TEM

and SEM. Micron. 35, 399–409.

75. Henderson, R. (1990). Cryoprotection of protein crystals against radia-

tion-damage in electron and X-ray-diffraction. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B.

Biol. Sci. 241, 6–8.

Chapter 5 High-Speed Electron Microscopy 441

76. Schotte, F., Lim, M.H., Jackson, T.A., Smirnov, A.V., Soman, J., Olson, J.S.,

Phillips, G.N., Wulff, M. and Anﬁ nrud, P.A. (2003). Watching a protein

as it functions with 150-ps time-resolved X-ray crystallography. Science

300, 1944–1947.

77. Neutze, R., Wouts, R., van der Spoel, D., Weckert, E. and Hajdu, J. (2000).

Potential for biomolecular imaging with femtosecond X-ray pulses. Nature

406, 752–757.

78. Hau-Riege, S.P., London, R.A. and Chapman, H.N. (2004). Pulse require-

ments for electron diffraction imaging of single biological molecules:

LLNL internal report.

79. Dubochet, J., Adrian, M., Chang, J.J., Homo, J.C., Lepault, T.J., McDowall,

A.W. and Schultz, P. (198 8). Cr yo - elect ron microscopy of vitriﬁ ed speci-

mens. Q. Rev. Biophys. 21, 129–228.

80. Varlot, K., Martin, J.M. and Quet, C. (1998). Physical and chemical

changes in polystyrene during electron irradiation using EELS in the

TEM: Contribution of the dielectric function. J. Microsc. Oxford 191,

187–194.

81. Siangchaew, K. and Libera, M. (2000). The inﬂ uence of fast secondary

electrons on the aromatic structure of polystyrene. Phil. Mag. A. 80,

1001–1016.

82. Emﬁ etzoglou, D. and Moscovitch, M. (2002). Inelastic collision character-

istics of electrons in liquid water. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B. 193,

71–78.

83. Cobut, V., Frongillo, Y., Patau, J.P., Goulet, T., Fraser, M.J. and Jay-Gerin,

J.P. (1998). Monte Carlo simulation of fast electron and proton tracks in

liquid water—I. Physical and physicochemical aspects. Radiat. Phys.

Chem. 51, 229–243.

84. Frongillo, Y., Goulet, T., Fraser, M.J., Cobut, V., Patau, J.P. and Jay-Gerin,

J.P. (1998). Monte Carlo simulation of fast electron and proton tracks in

liquid water—II. Nonhomogeneous chemistry. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 51,

245–254.

85. Dizdaroglu, M. (1992). Measurement of radiation-induced damage to

DNA at the molecular-level. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 61, 175–183.

86. Wu, Y.D., Mundy, C.J., Colvin, M.E. and Car, R. (2004). On the mecha-

nisms of OH radical induced DNA-base damage: A comparative quantum

chemical and Car-Parrinello molecular dynamics study. J. Phys. Chem. A.

108, 2922–2929.

87. Zimbrick, J.D. (2002). Radiation chemistry and the radiation research

society: A history from the beginning. Radiat. Res. 158, 127–140.

88. Douki, T., Spinelli, S., Ravanat, J.L. and Cadet, J. (1999). Hydroxyl radical-

induced degradation of 2'-deoxyguanosine under reducing conditions.

1875–1880.

89. Wardman, P. (1978). Application of pulse-radiolysis methods to study

reactions and structure of biomolecules. Rep. Prog. Phys. 41, 259–302.

90. Jay-Gerin, J.-P. (2004). Personal communication.

91. Fryer, J.R. (1987). The effect of dose-rate on imaging aromatic organic-

crystals. Ultramicroscopy 23, 321–327.

92. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1977). Ultrasonically induced magnetic

reversals observed by stroboscopic electron-microscopy. Opt. Acta. 24,

657–664.

93. Bostanjoglo, O. and Horinek, W.R. (1983). Pulsed Tem—a new method to

detect transient structures in fast phase-transitions. Optik. 65, 361–367.

94. Bostanjoglo, O., Schlotzhauer, G. and Schade, S. (1982). Shaping trigger

pulses from noisy signals and time-resolved TEM of fast phase-

transitions. Optik. 61, 91–98.

442 W.E. King et al.

95. Bostanjoglo, O. (1982). Time-resolved TEM of pulsed crystallization of

amorphous Si and Ge ﬁ lms. Phys. Status. Solidi. A. 70, 473–481.

96. Bostanjoglo, O. and Hoffmann, G. (1982). Time-resolved TEM of transient

effects in pulse annealing of Ge and Ge-Te ﬁ lms. Phys. Status. Solidi. A.

73, 95–105.

97. Bostanjoglo, O. and Schlotzhauer, G. (1981). Impulse stimulated crystal-

lization of Sb ﬁ lms investigated by time resolved TEM. Phys. Status. Solidi.

A. 68, 555–560.

98. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1980). Resonance oscillations of magnetic

domain-walls and Bloch lines observed by stroboscopic electron-

microscopy. Phys. Status. Solidi. A. 57, 561–568.

99. Bostanjoglo, O. and Liedtke, R. (1980). Tracing fast phase-transitions by

electron-microscopy. Phys. Status. Solidi. A. 60, 451–455.

100. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1980). Stroboscopic TEM studies of high-

frequency magnetic test materials. Mikroskopie 36, 344.

101. Bostanjoglo, O. and Gemund, H.P. (1978). Low-temperature specimen

holder for magnetization processes by means of short ﬁ eld pulse. Mikros-

kopie 34, 188.

102. Ischenko, A.A., Golubkov, V.V., Spiridonov, V.P., Zgurskii, A.V., Akhmanov,

A.S., Vabischevich, M.G. and Bagratashvili, N. (1983). A stroboscopical

gas-electron diffraction method for the investigation of short-lived

molecular-species. Appl. Phys. B-Photo 32, 161–163.

103. Becker, R.S., Higashi, G.S. and Golovchenko, J.A. (1984). Low-energy elec-

tron-diffraction during pulsed laser annealing—a time-resolved surface

structural study. Phys. Rev. Lett. 52, 307–310.

104. Rood, A.P. and Milledge, J. (1984). Combined ﬂ ash-photolysis and gas-

phase electron-diffraction studies of small molecules. J. Chem. Soc. Faraday

Trans. 2 80, 1145.

105. Ewbank, J.D., Schafer, L., Paul, D.W., Benston, O.J. and Lennox, J.C. (1984).

Real-time data acquisition for gas electron-diffraction. Rev. Sci. Instrum.

55, 1598–1603.

106. Bostanjoglo, O., Endruschat, E., Heinricht, F., Tornow, R.P. and Tornow, W.

(1987). Short-interval electron-microscopy and pulsed lasers. Eur. J. Cell

Biol. 44, 10.

107. Bostanjoglo, O., Kornitzky, J. and Tornow, R.P. (1989). Nanosecond double-

frame electron-microscopy of fast phase-transitions. J. Phys. E. Sci.

Instrum. 22, 1008–1011.

108. Bostanjoglo. O., Tornow, R.P. and Tornow, W. (1987). Nanosecond-

exposure electron-microscopy of laser-induced phase-transformations.

Ultramicroscopy 21, 367–372.

109. Ewbank, J.D., Luo, J.Y., English, J.T., Liu, R.F., Faust, W.L. and Schafer, L.

(1993). Time-resolved gas electron-diffraction study of the 193-nm pho-

tolysis of 1,2-dichloroethenes. J. Phys. Chem-Us 97, 8745–8751.

110. Dantus, M., Kim, S.B., Williamson, J.C. and Zewail, A.H. (1994). Ultrafast

electron-diffraction. 5. Experimental time resolution and applications. J.

Phys. Chem-Us 98, 2782–2796.

111. Ihee, H., Lobastov, V.A., Gomez, U.M., Goodson, B.M., Srinivasan, R.,

Ruan, C.Y. and Zewail, A.H. (2001). Direct imaging of transient molecular

structures with ultrafast diffraction. Science 291, 458–462.

112. Cao, J., Hao, Z., Park, H., Tao, C., Kau, D. and Blaszczyk, L. (2003). Fem-

tosecond electron diffraction for direct measurement of ultrafast atomic

motions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 1044–1046.

113. Dömer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). Phase explosion in laser-pulsed

metal ﬁ lms. Appl. Surf. Sci. 208, 442–446.

Chapter 5 High-Speed Electron Microscopy 443

114. Siwick, B.J., Dwyer, J.R., Jordan, R.E. and Miller, R.J.D. (2003). An atomic-

level view of melting using femtosecond electron diffraction. Science 302,

1382–1385.

115. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1976). Ultrasonicly induced magnetoelastic

effects observed by stroboscopic electron microscopy. In: Brandon DG,

ed. Proc 6th Eur Congr Electr Microscopy, Vol. 1. Jerusalem, p. 360.

116. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1980). Stroboscopic Lorentz TEM at 100 kV

up to 100 MHz. In: Brederoo P, Boom G, eds. Proc 7th Eur Congr Electr

Microscopy. The Hague, p. 88.

117. Bostanjoglo, O. and Rosin, T. (1980). Mass and relaxation time of domain

walls in thin NiFe ﬁ lms from forced oscillations. J. Magnetism. Magnetic

Mat. 15–18, 1529–1539.

118. Bostanjoglo, O., Endruschat, E. and Tornow, W. (1986). Time-resolved

TEM of laser-induced phase transitions in a-Ge and a-Si/A l ﬁ lms. Mat.

Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 71, 345–350.

119. Bostanjoglo, O. and Endruschat, E. (1985). Kinetics of laser-induced crystal-

lization of amorphous germanium ﬁ lms. Phys. Status. Solidi. A. 91, 17–28.

120. Bostanjoglo, O. and Nink, T. (1996). Liquid motion in laser-pulsed Al, Co,

and Au ﬁ lms. Appl. Surf. Sci. 109–110, 101–105.

121. Bostanjoglo, O., Kornitzky, J. and Tornow, R.P. (1991). High-speed elec-

tron-microscopy of laser-induced vaporization of thin-ﬁ lms. J. Appl. Phys.

69, 2581–2583.

122. Bostanjoglo, O. and Kornitzky, J. (1990). Nanoseconds double-frame and

streak transmission electron microscopy. Proc 12th Int Congr Electr

Microscopy. San Francisco, p. 180.

123. Bostanjoglo, O., Tornow, R.P. and Tornow, W. (1987). A pulsed image

converter for nanosecond electron-microscopy. Scan. Microsc. 197–203.

124. Bostanjoglo, O., Niedrig, R. and Wedel, B. (1994). Ablation of metal-ﬁ lms

by picosecond laser-pulses imaged with high-speed electron-microscopy.

J. Appl. Phys. 76, 3045–3048.

125. Bostanjoglo, O. and Otte, D. (1995). High-speed electron-microscopy of

nanocrystallization in Al-Ni ﬁ lms by nanosecond laser-pulses. Phys.

Status. Solidi. A. 150, 163–169.

126. Nink, T., Galbert, F., Mao, Z.L. and Bostanjoglo, O. (1999). Dynamics of

laser pulse-induced melts in Ni-P visualized by high-speed transmission

electron microscopy. Appl. Surf. Sci. 139, 439–443.

127. Nink, T., Mao, Z.L., and Bostanjoglo, O. (2000). Melt instability and crys-

tallization in thin amorphous Ni-P ﬁ lms. Appl. Surf. Sci. 154, 140–145.

128. Dömer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2002). Laser ablation of thin ﬁ lms with

very high induced stresses. J. Appl. Phys. 91, 5462–5467.

129. Dömer, H. and Bostanjoglo, O. (2003). Relaxing melt and plasma bubbles

in laser-pulsed metals. J. Appl. Phys. 94, 6280–6284.

130. Steinhauer, L.C. and Kimura, W.D. (1999). Longitudinal space charge

debunching and compensation in high-frequency accelerators. Phys. Rev.

ST-AB 2, 081301.

131. Seraﬁ ni, L. (1996). Micro-bunch production with radio frequency photo-

injectors. IEEE T. Plasma. Sci. 24, 421–427.

132. Anderson, S.G., Rosenzweig, J.B., Musumeci, P. and Thompson, M.C.

(2003). Horizontal phase-space distortions arising from magnetic pulse

compression of an intense, relativistic electron beam. Phys. Rev. Lett. 91,

074803.

133. Dowell, D.H., Adamski, J.L., Hayward, T.D., Johnson, P.E., Parazzoli, C.D.

and Vetter, A.M. (1997). Results of the Boeing pulse compression and

energy recovery. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A. 393, 184–187.

444 W.E. King et al.

134. Zhou. F., Cline, D.B. and Kimura, W.D. (2003). Beam dynamics analysis

of femtosecond microbunches produced by the staged electron laser

acceleration experiment. Phys. Rev. Spec. Top-Ac. 6, 054201.

135. Kung, P., Lihn, H.C., Wiedemann, H. and Bocek, D. (1994). Generation and

measurement of 50-Fs (Rms) electron pulses. Phys. Rev. Lett. 73,

967–970.

136. Kozawa, T., Kobayashi, T., Ueda, T. and Uesaka, M. (1997). Generation of

high-current (1kA) subpicosecond electron single pulse. Nucl. Instrum.

Meth. A. 399, 180–184.

137. Chao, A. (1993). Physics of Collective Beam Instabilities in High Energy

Accelerators. New York: Wiley. pp. x, 371.

138. Edwards, D.A. and Syphers, M.J. (1993). An Introduction to the Physics

of High Energy Accelerators. New York: Wiley, pp. xii, 292.

139. Williamson, J.C., Cao, J.M., Ihee, H., Frey, H. and Zewail, A.H. (1997).

Clocking transient chemical changes by Ultrafast electron diffraction.

Nature 386, 159–162.

140. Herman, J.W. and Elsayedali, H.E. (1992). Superheating of Pb(111). Phys.

Rev. Lett. 69, 1228–1231.

141. Elsayedali, H.E. and Mourou, G.A. (1988). Pico second reﬂ ection high-

energy electron-diffraction. Rev. Phys. Lett. 52, 103–104.

142. Bartell, L.S. and Dibble, T.S. (1990). Observation of the time evolution

phase—changes in clusters. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 112, 890–891.