Gramley, Stephan; P?tzold, Kurt-Michael. A Survey of Modern English
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Standard British and American
English in comparison
Although by far the majority of linguistic forms in the English language are common to
both BrE and AmE (as well as AusE, NZE, SAE, WAfrE, EAfrE, IndE, SingE and
Philippine English) there are a considerable number of points at which the two major
varieties diverge. Chapters 1 through 5 concentrated on a systematic presentation of StE
largely ignoring possible variation. The purpose of this chapter, then, is to look at the
differences between the two major varieties, BrE and AmE, in their standard forms.
12.1 PRONUNCIATION
It is in the area of pronunciation that BrE–AmE differences are most obvious. While
divergent patterns of grammatical usage, of vocabulary choice and of spelling preference
crop up only sporadically, pronunciation pervades and colours every aspect of oral
communication. Some of this is due to the differences in what is called articulatory set,
the predisposition to pronounce sounds and words in a particular fashion. This includes
much that is difficult to describe, yet contributes to the typical voice quality of an accent.
Many American speakers, especially from the Middle West, for example, have a ‘nasal
twang’. This is caused by the articulatory habit of leaving the velum open at all (or most)
times so that the nasal cavity forms a (near-)constant further resonance chamber. Coupled
with this is a narrowing of the pharynx which occurs because the root of the tongue is
pushed backwards more strongly; this gives the voice a tenser, darker quality. Southern
American speakers, in contrast, are stereotyped for their drawl by other Americans. This
drawing out of sounds is due perhaps to an overall lack of tension in articulation. British
accents are often thought of as ‘clipped’ by Americans, possibly because of the greater
tension and lesser degree of lengthening in stressed vowels.
In addition to these overall contrasting features there are a number of more specific
differences. In the following, differences in the phoneme inventories in BrE as repre-
sented by RP and in AmE as realized by the GenAm accent will be recounted first; then
the major differences in phonetic (or articulatory) realization and the phonotactic (or distri-
butional) differences will be reviewed; and after that divergent patterns of phoneme use
in whole sets of words will be mentioned as will a small list of individual words which
differ in their pronunciations only by chance. A few remarks on differences in stress and
intonation will close this section.
Chapter 12
12.1.1 Differences in phoneme inventory
The consonants of RP and GenAm are identical. Both varieties contain the same 24
phonemes (see 4.2). The only possible difference lies in the maintenance of the /hw/–/w/
distinction (as in where vs wear) in some of the regions where GenAm is spoken, though
the use of /hw/ seems to be recessive. Some RP speakers also retain this distinction
through a conscious effort to do so, feeling perhaps that this is somehow ‘more correct’.
With the vowels there is a clear difference in the number of phonemes available: RP
has 20; GenAm 16. This may be attributed to the fact that GenAm, which is a rhotic
accent (see 4.4.3 and 12.1.3), has no centring diphthongs. While GenAm has the combi-
nations /
r, er, υr/ as in lear, lair and lure, RP has the phonemes /ə, eə, υə/, though /υə/
is merging with /
ɔ/ in many words such as sure and /eə/ may be rendered as [ε]. This
latter change is one of the most widespread currently in progress in RP and is what Wells
calls smoothing. It is the simplification of a diphthong to a monophthong, or of a triph-
thong (/a
ə, aυə, ɔə/) to a diphthong or a monophthong. It leads to the reduction of the
vowels of tower and tire to the monophthong [
ɑ] and [a] respectively, sometimes even
going so far as to produce homophonous tower, tire and tar, all as [t
ɑ] (Wells 1982:
292f.).
In addition, GenAm does not have the phoneme /
ɒ/. Wherever RP has this sound
GenAm has either /
ɑ/ or /ɔ/. This as well as RP non-rhoticity lies behind the following
story:
American (to an Englishman): Say, what’s your job?
Englishman: I’m a clerk.
American (astonished): You mean you go ‘tick-tock, tick-tock’?
[RP kl
ɑk/ ‘clerk’ = GenAm /klɑk/ ‘clock’]
(Strevens 1972: 68)
Corresponding to RP /
ɒ/ GenAm has only /ɑ/ in some regions (for example, in parts of
the Middle West and neighbouring Canada); in other areas two distinctive phonemes are
retained. The distribution of RP /
ɒ/ between GenAm /ɑ/ and GenAm /ɔ/ varies region-
ally in America; the following is one common example of this split: before /l, m, n/ (doll,
bomb, don) GenAm has /
ɑ/; the same is true before the stops as in top, rob, dot, God,
dock; however, before a voiced velar stop as in dog or fog /
ɔ/ is widespread. The same
is true of the position before the velar nasal /
ŋ/ (song), before /r/ (orange) and before
the (unvoiced) fricatives /f,
θ, s/ (off, moth, moss). However, GenAm has /ɑ/ before /ʃ/
as in posh, slosh, gosh. This distribution and regional modifications of it apply only to
words with /
ɒ/ in RP. It does not mean that GenAm never has /ɔ/ when a stop follows
(e.g. gaudy or taught) nor /
ɑ/ when /r/ (far) or a fricative (father) follow.
12.1.2 Differences in the phonetic quality of phonemes
The chief consonant which may be noticeably different in its realization in the two accents
is /r/. In GenAm there is a strong tendency for /r/ to be retroflex [
!] (made with the tip
of the tongue turned backwards), while it is often the constricted continuant [
ɹ] in RP
(made with the tongue raised and tensed in the area just behind the alveolar ridge with
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relatively little retroflexion). In addition, an /r/ between two vowels (as in very) is some-
times articulated with a single flap of the tongue against the alveolar ridge [
ɾ] in RP even
though such a realization is increasingly rare after an accented syllable. It is also not
particularly unusual to hear RP speakers who realize /r/ with a /w/-like sound (actually
[
.]), so that rap sounds a bit like wap.
The /l/-sound differs inasmuch as GenAm tends to use a dark [
] in all positions in
contrast to RP, which has clear [l] before vowels (loop) and dark [
] before consonants
(help), at word end (sale), or where /l/ is syllabic [
] (bottle) (see 4.3.1 ‘Lateral’).
Among the vowels there are far more examples of different articulations. Most are
slight, yet some are readily noticed. The first element of /
əυ/ is a central vowel (schwa)
in RP, but a back vowel in GenAm, hence [o
υ]. In fact, the degree of diphthongization
of GenAm [o
υ] may be almost non-existent, namely [o], just as /e/ may be [e]. In RP
/
ɔ/ may be so close as to sound almost identical with GenAm [o]; in GenAm, on the
other hand, /
ɔ/ is relatively open.
/
/ (as in cut) is more or less mid central in GenAm, but more open and fronted in
RP. Both GenAm and RP have a long, mid, central vowel realization of /
/ (as in bird);
however, in RP this vowel is almost never followed by an /r/ (exception bimorphemic:
furry /f
r/; see 12.1.4), while in GenAm it always is (and therefore might be regarded
as an allophone of the central vowel /
/ before /r/).
In GenAm /
/ is usually longer than in RP. One of the consequences of this is that it
is frequently at least somewhat diphthongized in stressed syllables in GenAm. Where the
first element of the resulting diphthong is a high front vowel, as in New York City, the
girl’s name Ann and the (British) name Ian may become synonymous /
ən/. In addition,
GenAm /
/ is often subject to nasalization if a nasal consonant follows. For some speakers
the following nasal disappears completely leaving only the nasalized vowel, for example,
bank /b
ŋk/ first becomes /b˜ŋk/ and then possibly /b˜k/, which itself is distinguished
from back /b
k/ only by its nasalized vowel. RP // is also undergoing change, but chiefly
in the other direction: it is becoming more open [a] and thus more like the realization in
northern England.
In both varieties /u
/ is being increasingly fronted to [%] and in RP often unrounded
to [
1] (and /υ/ to [1]).
12.1.3 Phonotactic differences
Rhoticity RP has an /r/ only where there is a following vowel (red, every). When this
includes a vowel in the following word (tear + up), what is known as a ‘linking r’ may
link or connect the two words into a single phonetic unit. Such linking may also occur
where no r is present in the spelling (law officer /l
ɔrɒfsə/); this is called an ‘intrusive
r’ and may be found after final /
ɔ, ə, ɑ/ before a vowel in the following word. GenAm
regularly pronounces /r/ where the spelling indicates; it does not know an intrusive r (see
also 4.4.3).
Intervocalic /t/ GenAm realizes what is written as a <t> with a flap of the tongue
tip against the alveolar ridge when it comes between two voiced sounds. Phonetically this
is very much like the flapped [
ɾ] of RP very, but it is perceived as /d/. Indeed, intervocalic
/d/ is also flapped in GenAm, which means that latter and ladder sound identical, both
274 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
with flapped intervocalic [t+]. Further examples of the resulting homophony include
hurting = herding; helter = held’er (‘held her’), totem = towed’em (‘towed them’) or futile
= feudal. This voicing of intervocalic <t> does not apply if the syllable following the <t>
is stressed, hence
a-tom = A-dam, both with a flapped [t+], but a-tom-ic, with /t/. In RP
the realization of /t/ is variable before an unstressed syllable. In words like butter it may
be tapped [
ɾ] much as in GenAm. However, there can also be the glottaling of /t/ as in
(hatrack = ha’rack [h
ʔrk]), something heard in many (non-RP) urban accents of
England and Scotland as well (see 4.3.4). This is seen as a change currently in progress
in RP (Ramsaran 1990b: 183).
Post-nasal /t/ In words like winter or enter, where an unstressed vowel follows, the
<t> is frequently not pronounced at all in GenAm. As a result winter = winner and inter-
city = innercity. When the following syllable is stressed, /t/ is pronounced as in in-
ter;
/t/ is also pronounced if a consonant follows as in intra-city.
Dental and alveolar consonants + /j/ The combinations /nj, tj, dj, sj, zj, lj,
θj/
do not occur in GenAm, while they may in RP. Hence all those words spelled with <u>,
<ew>, <eu>, <ui> and <ue> and a few other combinations containing <u> (words such
as tune, thews, deuce, suit, neutral, lieutenant etc.) have simple /u
/ in GenAm, but /ju/
in RP (for lieutenant, see 12.1.5). Sometimes, especially after /s, z, l/ (as in suet, presume,
lute) there is free variation in RP between /ju
/ and /u/ with the latter being the majority
form in present day RP, and this is increasingly the case after /n/ as in /nu
/ new. Both
RP and GenAm agree in having /u
/ where the spelling has <oo> (noose, loose, doom
etc.). Note that the combinations /n+j/ and /l+j/ are possible in GenAm if there is an
intervening syllable boundary, e.g. Jan-u-ary, mon-u-ment, val-ue, all with /ju
/.
Palatalization The lack of /j/ before /u
/ as described in the preceding paragraph
represents a relatively late development in GenAm. Evidence that an earlier /j/ must have
been present can be seen in the palatalization which took place in words such as feature,
education, fissure or azure, in which original /t, d, s, z/ as reflected in the spelling have
moved slightly backwards in the mouth to a more palatal place of articulation. In addi-
tion, the stops /t/ and /d/ frequently changed to the affricates /t
ʃ/ and /d/ while /s/ and
/z/ merely became the palatal fricatives /
ʃ/ and //. In GenAm palatalization is regular
when the following syllable is unstressed. Before a stressed syllable there are a few well
known cases of palatalization such as sure, sugar, assure. RP agrees in most cases with
GenAm, but it has the additional possibility of unpalatalized /dj, tj, sj, zj/ in those cases
where a <u> follows. This is phonotactically impossible in GenAm. Hence GenAm has
only the palatalized version of education and issue while RP education may be
/edju
keʃən/ or /edəkeʃən/ and issue may be /ʃu/ or /sju/ though the palatalized form
is the general form in present day RP when followed by an unaccented syllable. Note
that both RP and GenAm agree in using unpalatalized forms for Tuesday: RP /tju
zd/
and GenAm /tu
zdi/ (GenAm with no /j/ cannot undergo palatalization); yet many non-
RP speakers and some RP speakers of BrE have the palatalized form even here, where
the following syllable is stressed as /t
ʃuzd/ (Chewsday as it were) or /dυərŋ/ (during).
On the other hand, while literature is generally pronounced as palatalized /l
t(ə)rətʃə(r)/
in both varieties, some (American) accents have unpalatalized /l
tərətur/.
When a <u> is not involved, but rather /i
/ or // + unstressed vowel, the situation is
less predictable. RP has, for example, both unpalatalized Indian /
ndən/ and (old-
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fashioned) palatalized /ndən/, unpalatalized immediately /midətl/ and palatalized
/
midətl/. GenAm has only the unpalatalized versions of each. A number of place names
are unpalatalized in RP and palatalized in GenAm, e.g. Tunisia, RP /tj
υnzə/ and GenAm
/tu
niə/, or Indonesia, RP /ndənizə/ and GenAm /ndəniə/ (see 12.1.4 for voicing
differences, e.g. RP /
ʃ/ vs GenAm //.) Both agree in having palatalized soldier, auspi-
cious, financial etc; and both have unpalatalized easier, Finlandia or rodeo.
Vowels In the area of the vowels only two frequent and very noticeable points will be
mentioned. GenAm does not allow any short vowels except for unstressed schwa to occur
in unchecked syllables (ones that do not end with a consonant). This means that the only
vowels which can come at the very end of a word are long vowels, diphthongs and schwa.
RP makes an exception to this rule by allowing final unstressed /
/. As a result, all those
words ending in unstressed <-y> and <-ie> such as cloudy and birdie have /
/ in RP, but
/i
/ in GenAm. // is retained even when an ending follows, hence in RP candied = candid
/k
ndd/. However, there is a tendency among younger RP speakers to lengthen this //
in the direction of /i
/.
The other point about vowels also involves unstressed syllables. GenAm has a much
greater tendency to reduce unstressed vowels to schwa while RP retains /
/, especially
where the endings {-D} and {-S} are pronounced with a vowel. This distinguishes boxes
/b
ɒksz/ from boxers /bɒksəz/; however, unstressed // is increasing realized as /ə/ in RP
as well. GenAm has schwa in both cases, but this causes no confusion because boxers is
pronounced with an /r/.
12.1.4 Divergent patterns of phoneme use in whole sets
of words
Among the consonants of English there is a notable difference in the way intervocalic
<-si-> is realized before an unstressed syllable (see the remarks on palatalization in the
preceding section). While all the following have /
/ in GenAm, only those under (a) have
this consonant in RP; the ones under (b) have either /
/ or /ʃ/ in RP; and the items in
(c) have only /
ʃ/ in RP:
a) vision, confusion, decision, measure, treasure, pleasure, usual, seizure;
b) Asia, aversion (GenAm: /
/ or /ʃ/), immersion, magnesia (GenAm: // or /ʃ/), Persia,
perversion;
c) version, aspersion.
In addition, Malaysia, Melanesia, Micronesia have /-z
-/ in RP and either // or /ʃ/ in
GenAm; Indonesian has /
ʃ/ or /-z-/ in RP and // or /ʃ/ in GenAm; euthanasia, Polynesia
and Tunisia have RP /-z
-/ and GenAm //.
At least some areas of America, especially the South, have an /l/ in words with
<-alm> (alms, balm, calm, palm, psalm, qualms). Furthermore, in those varieties in which
there is an /l/, the vowel is not /
ɑ/ but /ɔ/. In varieties of GenAm without an /l/ either
vowel may occur. RP never has /l/ and always has /
ɑ/.
There are four important sets of words in which RP and GenAm generally differ in
the vowel chosen. The largest and best known is the set of so-called bath words, which
276 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
have // in GenAm and /ɑ/ in RP. This set of words is defined by the occurrence of a
spelling <a> followed by <s>, <f> or <th>, as in pass, after, path or rather; in addition,
the <a> may be followed by <m> or <n> plus another consonant, as in example or dance.
Approximately 300 words fulfil these conditions, but only about one third have /
ɑ/ in
RP; the remainder have /
/ in both varieties (e.g. ass, traffic, math(s), gather, trample,
Atlantic). One word has /
ɑ/ in both varieties (father), and some vary in RP between //
and /
ɑ/ (lather, mass).
The second set of words which vary between the two varieties comprises those in
which an intervocalic /r/ follows a mid central vowel, as in borough, burrow, courage,
concurrent, curry, flurry, furrow, hurricane, hurry, nourish, scurry, thorough, turret,
worry. Here GenAm has /
/ while RP has //. RP can have the combination /r/ only
when a word otherwise ending in /
/ has been given an ending beginning with a vowel,
as in furry, deterring or referral.
The third set includes those words derived from Latin which end in <-ile>. In RP the
usual pronunciation is /a
l/ while in GenAm it is /l/ or /əl/, e.g. febrile, fragile, futile,
missile, puerile, tactile, virile. Note, however, that individual words in GenAm may vary
so that, for example, textile, reptile and servile commonly have either /a
l/ or /l/.
The final set of words includes names of countries, such as Slovakia, Nicaragua,
Rwanda, Surinam or Vietnam. Here GenAm usually has /
ɑ/ for the <a> in the stressed
syllables while RP has /
/, e.g. /nkər,jυə/ vs /nkərɑ,wə/.
12.1.5 Individual words which differ
A few words have differing pronunciations in the two varieties without this divergence
being systematic or belonging to a larger set of words. In the list first the RP and then
the GenAm pronunciation is indicated for each item or group of items:
RP GenAm
schedule
ʃ sk
lieutenant army: left-; navy lu
t- lut-
erase and parse zs
gooseberry z or s s
herb h no h
geyser i
a
quinine + i a + a
stressed been i
aesthetic, evolution, era i e
squirrel
(n)either a i
tryst a
dynasty, midwifery, privacy,
viola (musical instrument)
a
progress, process əυ ɑ
data, apparatus, status e e or or ɑ
leisure, zebra, zenith ei
wrath ɒ
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quagmire ɒ or
produce (noun), shone, scone,
yoghurt
ɒ oυ
tomato, strafe ɑ e
what, was, of ɒ
vase vɑzvez or ves
plaque
ɑ or
clerk, Berkeley, Derby ɑ r
route u
u or aυ
Stress and intonation The stress patterns of RP and GenAm are generally the same.
One well known difference is in the pronunciation of words ending in <-ary>, <-ery> or
<-ory>. In RP they contain a single stressed syllable, which is the first or the second one
in the word, and the second to last syllable is frequently elided. In GenAm the stress is
on the first syllable; in addition, secondary stress falls on the next to last syllable, for
example:
RP GenAm
secretary:
sec-re-t(a)ry sec-re-tar-y
library:
li-br(ar)y li-brar-y
stationery:
sta-tion-(e)ry sta-tio-ner-y
laboratory: la-
bor-a-t(o)ry lab-(o)-ra-tor-y
corollary: co-
rol-la-ry cor-ol-lar-y
A number of individual words also carry their stress on different syllables in the two
varieties. Here is a short list, always with the RP form first:
RP GenAm RP GenAm
ad
vertisement advertisement the <i> is a
artisan artisan the second <a> is ə
ballet ballet the <e> is e or e
baton baton the <a> is ə
chagrin (n.) chagrin the <a> is ə
detail detail the <e> is i
doctrinal doctrinal the <i> is a
frontier frontier frntʃə frntr
(also RP)
garage garage the first <a> is ə;
the second is
or ɑ ɑ
lamentable lamentable lmənt- ləment-
résumé (noun) resume <re-> is re or re re
re
veille reveille rvlirevəli
valet valet v-lt or -le vəle
(and as in RP)
The intonation of both accents functions according to the same basic principles. Yet
the intonation of RP is often characterized as more varied, that of GenAm as flatter.
Some of the individual points of difference include the following. RP more frequently
278 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
uses sharp jumps downwards, but has more gradual rises than does GenAm. In lengthy
sentences GenAm will repeat the overall contour, leaving the final rise or fall until
the very end; RP, in contrast, draws out the rise or fall in small increments from
stressed syllable to stressed syllable. GenAm generally has falling intonation in wh-
questions while RP frequently uses an alternative pattern with a low rise at the end, some-
thing which is perceived as friendlier. Yes-no questions have a rapid rise in GenAm,
remain high and finish with a further small rise. In RP the final rise may be preceded by
a falling contour.
12.2 SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION
Spelling and punctuation differences are, in the same way as most differences in
pronunciation, not merely haphazard and unsystematic. Instead, the principles of simpli-
fication, regularization, derivational uniformity and reflection of pronunciation are used.
Of course, there are a number of individual, unsystematic differences in addition.
Although it is not always easy to attribute British–American divergences unambiguously
to a single principle, the following presentation will proceed as if this were no problem.
12.2.1 Spelling
Simplification This principle is common to both the British and the American tradi-
tions, but is sometimes realized differently. AmE has a greater reputation for simplification
as often attested by such standard examples as program instead of programme (but note
that BrE has program for computer software). Compare also measurement words ending
in <-gram(me)> such as kilogram(me) etc., where the form with the final <-me> is the
preferred, but not the exclusive BrE form. Likewise, BrE waggon is still found next to
AmE (and, increasingly, BrE) wagon. AmE has counselor, woolen, fagot as well as
common counsellor, woollen and faggot.
Simplification of <ae> and <oe> to <e> in words taken from Latin and Greek (heresy,
federal etc.) are the rule for all of English, but this rule is carried out less completely in
BrE, where we find mediaeval next to medieval, foetus next to fetus and paediatrician
next to pediatrician. We also find AmE forms with simple <e> compared to the non-
simplified forms of BrE in words like esophagus/oesophagus; esthetics/aesthetics (also
AmE); maneuver/manoeuvre; anapest/anapaest; estrogen/oestrogen; anemia/anaemia;
egis/aegis (also AmE); ameba/amoeba. Note, however, that some words have only <ae>
and <oe> in AmE, e.g. aerial and Oedipus.
A further simplification in AmE is one which has not been adopted at all in BrE: the
dropping of the -ue of -logue in words like catolog, dialog, monolog. This simplification,
which does not extend to words like Prague, vague, vogue or rogue, is not fully accepted
for use in formal AmE writing. Note also the simplification of words like (BrE) judge-
ment to (AmE) judgment; abridg(e)ment; acknowledg(e)ment.
BrE employs some simplified spellings which have not been adopted in AmE, such
as BrE skilful and wilful for AmE skillful and willful. BrE fulfil, instil, appal may be inter-
preted as simplification, but AmE double <-ll-> in fulfill, instill, appall may have to do
with where the stress lies (see below ‘Reflection of pronunciation’). Nevertheless, AmE
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uses common fulness alongside (AmE) fullness; other words which have both forms in
AmE are instal(l), instal(l)ment and enthral(l).
BrE simplifies <-ection> to <-exion> in connexion, inflexion, retroflexion etc. Here
AmE uses connection etc. thus following the principle of derivational unity: connect >
connection, connective; reflect > reflection, reflective. For more on ‘Derivational unifor-
mity’ see below.
Regularization This principle is again one which has been employed more completely
in AmE than in BrE. It shows up most obviously in the regularization of the endings
<-or> and <-our> to the single form <-or>. This seems justified since there are no system-
atic criteria for distinguishing between the two sets in BrE: neighbour and saviour, but
donor and professor; honour and valour, but metaphor, anterior and posterior; savour
and flavour, but languor and manor; etc. Within BrE there are special rules to note: the
ending <-ation> and <-ious> usually lead to a form with <-or-> as in coloration and
laborious, but the endings <-al> and <-ful>, as in behavioural and colourful, have no
such effect. However, even AmE may keep <-our> in such words as glamour (next to
glamor) and Saviour (next to Savior), perhaps because there is something ‘better’ about
these spellings for many people. Words like contour, tour, four or amour, where the
vowel of the <-our> carries stress, are never simplified.
Note that, although unrelated to the preceding, AmE also has mold, molt, smolder and
mustache where BrE has mould, moult, smoulder and moustache. Similarly AmE has gage
where BrE has gauge.
The second well known case concerns <-er> and <-re>. Here BrE words in <-re> are
regularized to <-er> in AmE. For example, BrE goitre, centre and metre become AmE
goiter, center (but the adjective form is central) and meter (hence levelling the distinc-
tion between metre ‘39.37 inches’ and meter ‘instrument for measuring’). This rule applies
everywhere in AmE except where the letter preceding the ending is a <c> or a <g>. In
these cases <-re> is retained as in acre, mediocre and ogre in order to prevent the misin-
terpretation of <c> as ‘soft’ /s/ or <g> as /d
/. The AmE spellings fire (but note fiery),
wire, tire etc. are used to insure interpretation of these sequences as monosyllabic. The
fairly widespread use of the form theatre in AmE runs parallel to glamour and Saviour,
as mentioned above: it is supposed to suggest superior quality or a more distinguished
tradition for many people.
Derivational uniformity BrE writes defence, offence, pretence, but practise (verb)
(all are also possible alternatives in AmE), while AmE alone has defense, offense,
pretense, but practice (verb). What appears to be arbitrary (sometimes <c> and some-
times <s>) is really the application in AmE of the principle of derivational uniformity:
defense > defensive, offense > offensive, pretense > pretension, practice > practical (see
connexion vs connection under ‘Simplification’ above.) In another case BrE observes this
principle and AmE violates it, namely analyze and paralyze. Here BrE analyse and
paralyse (also possible in AmE) share the <s> with their derivational cognates analysis
and paralysis.
Reflection of pronunciation The forms analyze and paralyze, which end in <-ize>,
may violate derivational uniformity, but they do reflect the pronunciation of the final frica-
tive, which is clearly a voiced-lenis /z/. This principle has been widely adopted in spelling
280 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
on both sides of the Atlantic for verbs ending in <-ize> and the corresponding nouns
ending in <-ization>. The older spellings with <-ise> and <-isation> are, however, also
found in both AmE and BrE. Advertise, for example, is far more common than advertize
(also advise, compromise, revise, televise). The decisive factor here seems to be
publishers’ style sheets, with increasing preference for <z>.
In AmE, when an ending beginning with a vowel (<-ing>, <-ed>, <-er>) is added to
a multi-syllabic word ending in <l>, the <l> is doubled if the final syllable of the root
carries the stress and is spelled with a single letter vowel (<e, o>). If the stress does not
lie on the final syllable, the <l> is not doubled, for example:
re
bel > rebelling revel > reveling
re
pel > repelled travel > traveler
com
pel > compelling marvel > marveling
con
trol > controlling trammel > trammeled
pa
trol > patroller yodel > yodeled
While BrE uniformly follows the principle of regularization and doubles the <l> (revel-
ling, traveller etc.; also accepted in AmE), AmE spelling reflects pronunciation. The AmE
spellings fulfill, distill etc. may be favoured over simplified BrE fulfil, distil etc. because
they indicate end stress. A similar principle may apply to AmE installment, skillful and
willful, where the <ll> occurs in the stressed syllable. In a few cases BrE doubles the
final <p> where AmE does not, e.g. worship(p)er, kidnap(p)er. Both varieties accept both
biased and biassed, busing and bussing.
Perhaps the best known cases of spellings adapted to reflect pronunciation are those
involving <-gh->. Here AmE tends to use a phonetic spelling so that BrE plough appears
as AmE plow, BrE draught (‘flow of air, swallow or movement of liquid, depth of a
vessel in water’) as AmE draft (BrE has draft in the sense of a bank draft or a first draft
of a piece of writing). The spellings thru for through and tho’ for though are not
uncommon in AmE, but are generally restricted to more informal writing; however, they
sometimes show up in official use as in the designation of some limited access express-
ways as thruways. Spellings such as lite for light, hi for high or nite for night are employed
in very informal writing and in advertising language. But from there they can enter more
formal use, as is the case lite in the sense of diet drinks and the like.
Individual words which differ in spelling For a number of words there are alter-
natives between <in-> and <en-> without there being any clear principle involved except
for a slight preference in AmE for <in-> and in BrE for <en->, e.g. BrE ensure, enclose,
endorse and AmE insure, inclose, indorse, but common envelop and inquire (beside BrE
enquire).
The practice of writing compounds as two words, as a hyphenated word, or as a single
unhyphenated word varies; however, there is a marked avoidance of hyphenations in
AmE. Hence while BrE writes make-up (‘cosmetics’), AmE uses make up; BrE neo-
colonialism, but AmE neocolonialism. Usage varies considerably from dictionary to
dictionary; and no more can be said than that this is a preference; but there does seem
to be an increasing tendency towards uniformity in the form of single unhyphenated
words. Many Americans (and Australians) write compound numbers without a hyphen
(e.g. twenty five), but most Americans retain one (twenty-five), as do most British writers.
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STANDARD BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH IN COMPARISON 281