Gramley, Stephan; P?tzold, Kurt-Michael. A Survey of Modern English

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comparative 101, 104, 316, 320, 345

complementary distribution 72, 84

complementary pairs 26, 149

complement clause constructions 285

complementizers 133, 134, 135

complements 5.3.2; 107, 109

completive 263, 342, 345

complex clauses, sentences 5.8.3; 137, 138

compliments 169, 199

composition 2.7.4; 35, 36, 39, 41, 163

compound-complex sentences 138

compounds 25, 35, 39, 43, 163, 167, 301,

321

compound sentences 138

conative function see directive function

concept(ual) or thematic dictionary see

thesauruses

conceptual gap 291

concord 4, 111, 260, 264, 286, 287, 331, 335

grammatical 111

notional 111

by proximity 112

concordance 27

conditionals 114, 116, 125, 126, 140, 340,

341

conjoined clauses 128

conjunctions 5.1.7, 12.3.3; 87, 98, 105, 110,

127, 138, 139, 151, 287, 289, 337, 345

conjuncts 104, 139

connectivity, connexity continuity 145

connectors, connectives 5.3.5; 110, 151

connotations 25, 210

consonants 4.3; 67, 69, 270, 271, 273, 274,

275, 276, 277, 298, 299, 312, 319, 323

affricates 70, 71, 74, 243, 246, 257, 275,

332

ʃ/ 70, 71, 261, 345

/ 70, 71, 323, 344

change 4.3.4; 74

clusters 320, 324, 329, 333, 334, 339

fricatives 70, 71

/f/ 71, 327, 332, 335, 344, initial /f/ 255

/v/ 71, 261, 270, 312, 327, 332

θ/ 74, 237, 243, 246, 247, 261, 270, 321,

322, 327, 332, 337

ð/ 69, 73, 74, 237, 243, 246, 247, 255,

261, 270, 323, 327, 332, 337

<th> 258

/s/ 247, 344, initial /s/ 255

ʃ/ 73, 261, 344

/ 73, 323

/x/ 69, 237, 238, 243

[ç] 75

harmony 243

lateral 73

/l/ 69, 70, 72, 74, 228, 229, 231, 238, 243,

246, 252, 255, 257, 263, 270, 274, 299,

305, 323

clear and dark /l/ 69

nasals 70, 72, 73, 77

/m/ 70, 73

/n/ 69, 70, 73

ŋ/ 70, 72, 73

/ 72

obstruents 70, 71, 73

retroﬂex 273, 274, 312, 327

semi-vowels 67, 69, 72, 73, 81

/j/ 69, 72, 247, 252, 253, 256, 257, 275

/r/ 69, 72, 74, 80, 231, 239, 247, 252,

255, 273, 274, 310, 323

/w/ 69, 72, 238, 241, 243, 253, 273, 312,

327, 332

stops 68, 70, 71, 334, 337

/p/ 323, 332, 335, 345

/b/ 344

/t/ 80, 247, 252, 253, 323, 327, 335;

see also text types

expressive 18, 98; see also function (text)

expressive function 162

extension: semantic 43, 320

extraposition 123, 133, 141

eye contact 223

face 198

face-threatening act (FTA) 199

factitive 107

factual verbs 136

false friends 32, 47

fathers’ speech 222

features (phonological) 68

felicity conditions 170

female language see gender

Fernando Poo 316

ﬁeld 14, 46, 155, 156, 157

ﬁgurative language 63, 293

Fiji 314, 343

Filipino/Pilipino/Tagalog 314, 333, 335

ﬁnite clauses 131, 138

ﬁnite VPs 5.4.1; 110

384 INDEX

ﬁrst language 317

ﬁxed expressions 3.1, 3.7; 48, 50, 60, 62, 64

ﬂapping 76, 80

Florida 84

ﬂuency 215

folk etymology 32, 42, 269

for . . . to constructions 136, 286

force of articulation see articulation

foreign learners 15, 16, 25, 28

formative 55

formulaic expressions 61

fortis see articulation

frames 187. 188

free combination see collocations

free morpheme see morphemes

French 6, 10, 29, 30, 32, 41, 72, 93, 250, 265,

282, 314, 315, 317, 338, 339, 342

French Creole 251, 265

frequency 164

fricatives see consonants

frictionless continuants see semi-vowels

fronting 123

frozenness hierarchy 57

full-text search 26

function (text) 152

functional phrases 5.2; 106

functional sentence elements 5.3; 107

functional shift see shifts

functional tenor 18, 46, 153, 155, 157, 215

function words see grammatical words

fun naming 206

future (time/tense) 111, 113, 115, 142, 153,

257, 340, 341, 342, 344

Gabon 317

Gaelic 10

Gaeltacht 240

Gambia 314, 316, 317, 342

gambits see pragmatic idioms

gay language 209

GenAm (General American) 3, 6, 11, 66, 69,

74, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 85, 96, 103, 231,

232, 239, 243, 253, 256, 257, 270, 272,

273, 298, 319, 327, 332

gender 11, 26, 44, 66, 91, 176, 195, 196, 197,

198, 199, 200, 201, 204, 207, 208, 209,

232, 238, 245, 253, 255, 257, 297, 298,

300, 309, 327

grammatical 100, 197, 209

language about males, females 210

language use by males, females 212

GenE (General English) 1.4; 7, 8, 25, 158, 160,

161, 163, 164, 196, 203, 206, 227, 228,

229, 234, 247, 259, 261, 265, 331

generalization (semantic) 43, 44

generic

names 197

nouns 128

reference 128, 211

genre 167; see also text types

Georgia 84, 250, 340, 341

German 86, 251, 314, 344

Germanic 29

sound shift 69

gerunds 57, 98, 103, 110, 132, 133, 134,

136

get 284

Ghana 314, 316, 317, 319, 342

given-new see theme-rheme

Glasgow 74, 235, 237, 238, 245

global English 47

global knowledge patterns 194; see also

consonants

glottal (coarticulation) see articulation

goodbyes 176

go-on gambits 183, 184, 221

gossip 213, 218, 219

government 323, 330, 341, 343

gradability 104, 130

grammar 15, 16, 26, 53, 56, 57, 58, 61, 87, 97,

123, 158, 184, 195, 213, 228, 238, 244,

246, 255, 257, 259, 265, 295, 300, 327,

331, 335, 336

non-standard 215

past tense, past participle 237

regional 229

grammars 6, 10, 141

grammatical interference 310

grammatical items/words 24

grammatical shift 42

grammatical words 17, 24, 73, 86, 87, 98

graphemes 91, 93

graphs 93

Great Britain 246, 303; see also BrE

Great Vowel Shift 236, 299

Greek 29, 30, 39, 92, 159, 163, 279

greetings 175, 321

Grenada 265

Grimm’s Law 69

grounders 181, 182

Gujarati 327

Gullah 341, 347

Guyana Creole, Guyana 250, 265, 340, 341,

347

habitual aspect 112, 244, 263, 331

hard words 2.4.2; 31, 32, 47, 155

Hausa 314, 319, 342

1111

1011

4111

20111

5111

30111

40111

47111

INDEX 385

have 76, 98, 102, 103, 111, 117, 121, 122,

126, 128, 230, 265, 284, 285, 336, 337,

345

Hawaiian Pidgin English, Hawaiian Creole

English, Hawaii 336, 337, 343

H-dropping 74, 88, 246, 247, 299, 310

head (grammatical) 104, 106

head act 183

head moves 179, 182

head words 26

hearer roles 193

hearer support maxim 168, 177, 179

hearer-knows-best principle 172

Hebrides 234

hedges 199

hesitations 176

heteronomy 26

Hiberno-English see IrE

Hiligaynon 333

Hindi 265, 311, 314, 325, 327, 331

historical dialects 155; see also dialects

historical present 112, 119

history of English 4, 12, 19, 92

Hobart 300

Hokkien 329, 331, 332

homographs 24

homonymy 24

homophones 24, 69, 99, 344

homorganic 71, 76

Hong Kong 314

honoriﬁcs 202

hopefully 290

humour 169

hybrid formations 29

hyperbole 46, 61, 155

hypercorrection 305

hyphenation 281

hyponymy 25, 26, 148

ideational shift 191

idea unit 16

identity 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 199, 209, 215,

248, 252, 255, 261, 268, 297, 312, 316,

323, 325, 329, 332

ideology 198, 206

idiolect 14

idiomaticity 49, 51, 64

idioms 24, 49, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61,

62, 64, 65, 155, 244, 269, 293

if-clauses 116

Igbo 314, 342

illocutionary act 171, 183, 184

illocutionary force 5.8.1; 137

Ilokano 333

imperative mood 171

imperatives 17, 40, 47, 109, 116, 128, 137,

138, 142, 153, 191

impersonal (weather) verbs 108

implicational conditional 127

implicational relationship 239

implicit communication 222

improprieties 4, 19

inclusion 25

inclusive language 210

incompatibility 26

IndE (Indian English), India 14.2.1; 202, 206,

312, 314, 347

indeﬁnite pronouns 100, 101; see also

pronouns

indexical function 189

Indian languages 202

Indian SAE 13.3.5; 308

indicative 137

indigenization 316, 321, 323, 330

indirect objects 107, 109

indirect questions 228, 244, 264, 331

indirect speech 103, 114, 125, 135

indirect speech acts 171

indirectness 63, 169, 173, 174, 193

inﬁnitives 103, 110, 124, 132, 133, 134, 135,

136, 140

inﬁxes 39

proverbial 60

inﬂectional morphemes 98, 99, 101, 102, 104,

111, 263, 340, 341

{-D} 73, 76, 77, 78, 101, 112, 263, 275,

283, 339, 341

{-er} 104

{-est} 104

{-ing} 38, 51, 111, 134, 135, 140, 216, 253,

270, 281, 310

{-S} 73, 76, 78, 99, 101, 102, 111, 112, 124,

230, 237, 262, 264, 275, 311, 312, 331,

337, 339, 341, 343

information state 191

informational function 18

information unit 16

informative 152, 154; see also function (text)

informativity 146

initial afﬁxations see preﬁxes

initialisms 38

initiate 179, 181, 182

inserts 16, 17

instrument 107

insults 198, 200, 202, 205, 207

intensiﬁers 47, 104, 122, 130, 213

intention 115, 155

intentionality 146

386 INDEX

interaction 170

interactional encounters 175

interactional marker 191

interactional structure 174, 181

interactive speech acts 171

acknowledging acts 171

directing acts 171

eliciting acts 171

informing acts 171

interference 259, 319, 323, 332

interjections 98

international communication 157, 315

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 82

international use 10

Internet 34

interrogative clauses 132, 133

interrogative mood 171

interrogative pronouns 101; see also pronouns

interrogatives 17, 103, 124, 125, 137, 140, 171,

190

wh-questions 192

yes-no questions 89, 192

interruptions 184, 185, 218, 220

intertextuality 146

intervocalic /t/ 76, 243, 253, 274, 298, 310

intonation 16, 87, 96, 138, 184, 185, 188, 192,

195, 215, 228, 261, 269, 278, 297, 298,

319, 332

intransitive verbs 108, 121

intrusive r 85, 275

Inuits (Eskimos) 251

invariant be see be

Inverness 235

inversion 89, 103, 111, 127, 137, 138, 140,

159, 264, 284, 289, 327

IrE (Irish English), Ireland 10.3; 228, 239, 240,

246, 249, 255, 296, 314; see also

Northern Ireland, Scots (Ulster)

Mid-Ulster English 241

Southern IrE 10.3, 10.4; 72, 241

South Ulster English 240, 241, 246, 296,

314

Irish 239, 241, 242, 243, 314

irony 174

irreversible binomials see binominals

isochrony 86

isogloss 13, 234

Israel 314

Italian 72, 251

Jamaican Creole, Jamaica 247, 250, 265, 271,

339, 341, 347

jargon 4, 342

jokes 176, 184, 187, 219

journalism 50, 331

juncture 4.5.1; 85

Kannada 325

Karnataka 325

Kenya 307, 314, 316, 321, 322, 323

kinship (terms) 8.3.9; 29, 197, 321

koiné, koineization 13, 229, 245, 247

Krio 343, 348

Kriol 303

labial see articulation

Lallans 235

language acquisition 221, 336

language attitudes 2

language birth 9

language imposition 10

language maintenance 9

language patterns 6.3.4; 156

language planning and policy 9, 10, 313,

315

language skills 158

language structure see grammar

language use 9

larger text patterns. 149

lateral see consonants

Latin 6, 29, 30, 31, 32, 39, 41, 77, 93, 159,

163, 279, 315

laughter 219, 222

law 310, 316, 319, 324, 332, 335

lax 79

left dislocation 17, 123

length see duration

lenis see articulation

Lesotho 314, 316

Lesser Antilles 339

letter words 38

levelling 229, 240

Lewis 235

lexemes 23, 104

lexical bundles 49, 65

lexical ﬁeld 148

lexical gap 290

lexical items 23, 104, 151, 164

lexical links 6.2.1; 147

lexical relationships 2.2; 26

lexical unit 24

lexical verbs 98, 101, 111, 116

lexical word 86

lexicon 6.6; 23, 161

lexifer language 336, 337

lexis 23, 290; see also vocabulary

liaison, linking 85

Liberia 314, 316, 317, 342

1111

1011

4111

20111

5111

30111

40111

47111

INDEX 387

lingua franca 321, 329, 336, 342

Linguistic Atlas 255, 259

linguistic stereotypes 210

linked transition 188

linking r 85, 274

linking verb see copula

lip rounding 72, 78

literary language 64

loan shifts 28

loan translations 28, 163, 260, 268, 295, 311,

321, 331

loan words 2.4.3, 6.6.2; 29, 30, 31, 33, 163,

260, 268, 295, 297, 301, 306, 311, 321,

328, 331, 343, 344

locutionary act 171

London English, London 3, 5, 6, 84, 232, 245,

247, 248, 299, 304

London Jamaican 247; see also Jamaican

Creole

loudness 86, 123, 185, 215, 332

Louisiana 251

love 136

L-vocalization 247

macrostructure 28

Madras 325

malapropisms 4, 31

Malawi 307, 314, 316, 323

Malay, Malaysia 14.2.2; 202, 314, 324, 329,

331, 332

Malayalam 325

Maltese, Malta 314

mandative subjunctive 135, 137

manner of articulation see articulation

manner-of-communication verbs 137

Maori English, Maori 13.2.3; 303, 306

Maritime provinces 253

market language 338

Maryland 84

mass nouns 37, 128

matched guise tests 218, 232, 262

Mauritius 314

meaning 2.1, 7.2.1; 28, 47, 170

meaning change 2.9; 43

meaning shift 2.8; 42

media 9, 19, 33, 229, 234, 267, 309, 311, 315,

318, 323, 325, 329, 333, 341, 342

medium 15, 46, 138, 139, 155, 156, 158,

331

Melanesian Pidgin English, Melanesia 336,

343

Melbourne 300

mental lexicon 26, 47

mental or emotional state 113

meronymy 25, 26

mesolects 267, 315, 330, 332, 341

meta-communicative function 18

meta-interactive speech acts 171

metaphors 43, 56, 60, 61, 162, 163, 211, 337

metonymy 43, 61, 211

metropolitanization 345

Mexico 251, 261

M-forms 196, 197

Miami 251, 260

microstructure 28

Middle English 44, 45

Mid-Ulster English see IrE

minimal pairs 67, 85

minimal responses 221

minor sentence types 107

mobility, geographical and social 5

modality 5.4.5; 110, 123, 140, 142, 340

modal verbs 98, 110, 111, 116, 123, 126, 135,

160, 238, 259, 264, 284, 285, 300, 331,

340, 345

mode see medium

modiﬁers 110

monogenetic hypothesis 338

Montserrat 265

mood 137, 171, 191

morality maxim 174

morphemes, derivational 73, 84, 101, 163

{-al} 87

{anti-} 41

{-ation, -ion, -ition) 38, 41, 87

{bio-} 40

{cyber-} 34

{de-} 41

{e-} 34, 42

{-een} 244

{-er} 38, 41, 95, 163, 280, 281, 299

{-ers} 45, 196

{-gate} 41

{-ic(al)) 38, 41, 87

{immuno-} 40

{-ish} 41, 46

{-ism} 41

{-ist} 41

{-ity} 40, 41, 87

{-ive} 87

{-ize/-ise} 41, 46

{-like} 29, 46

{-ly} 29, 41, 104

{-ment} 41, 87

{micro-} 40

{-ness} 41, 87

{non-} 41, 46

{-o} 196, 205, 301, 302

388 INDEX

{-ology/-ologist} 41, 42, 163

{-ous} 87

{pre-} 40, 41

{-scape} 41

{-ship} 41

{-speak} 41

{-y} (also {-ee}, {-ie}) 38, 39, 41, 46, 87,

301

morphology 12.3; 13.1.2; 53, 98, 123, 158,

283, 300, 301

morphophonemic alternations 76, 96

mothers’ speech 222

moves 7.3.4; 174, 179, 181, 189, 190

multiple class membership see shifts

multiple negation 215, 230, 238, 257, 259, 260,

264

multiplex 217, 240

multi-word units, expressions, verbs 24, 48, 63;

see also phrasal verbs

names 196, 201, 202

Namibia 314, 316

narration 112, 114, 118, 119, 147, 153, 155,

156, 157, 176, 177, 189, 190, 248

narrative tense 237, 264

narrative texts see text types

narrowing 43

nasalization 78

nasals see consonants

nasal twang 272

Natal, Natal English 309, 312

national varieties Chap. 10–14; 1, 7, 13

nationality 8.3.1; 198, 200

Native American English 271

Native Canadians 251

nativization see indigenization

Nauru 314

negation 4, 103, 125, 137, 140, 154, 237, 238,

284, 340; see also multiple negation

neologisms 33, 212

Neo-Solomonic see Solomon Islands Pijin

Nepal 324

network English see GenAm

neutralization (phonetic) 67, 239, 305

Nevis 265

New Brunswick 251, 253

New England 251

Newfoundland 255

New Guinea 338

new information 146, 150

new item 191

New Mexico 251

newsworthiness 188

new words 2.5; 33, 47

New York 74, 251, 256, 257, 260, 271

New Zealand 13.2; 297; see also NZE

Nguni 311

NICE

features 103, 123

NigE (Nigerian English), Nigeria 203, 314,

315, 316, 317, 319, 342, 343

Nigerian PE (Pidgin English) 339, 341,

347

node 52, 55

nominalization, nominals 5.6, 6.5.2; 132, 160,

161, 167

nominal phrase see NP

nominal style 102, 159

nominative with inﬁnitive (n.c.i.) 136

non-assertive contexts 125, 140, 285

nonce 282

non-deﬁning clauses see non-restrictive

clauses

non-ﬁnite clauses 131, 138

non-ﬁnite verb forms 103, 110

non-ﬁnite VPs 110

non-linguistic behaviour 60

non-native English 1

non-native users 157

non-restrictive clauses 131

non-sexist language 212

non-solidary encounters 175

non-standard English 1, 216, 229, 234, 259,

260, 268, 301

ain’t 230

demonstrative determiner them 230,

260

grammar 245

multiple negation 230

never 230

past tense, past participles 230, 283

perfective done 257, 263

plural 230

reﬂexive pronouns 230

relative pronouns 230

third person singular don’t 230

non-verbal communication 9.5; 168, 181, 185,

222

norms 2, 3, 216, 217, 230, 232, 240, 241, 245,

247, 253, 255, 257, 268, 269

covert 8, 11

overt 7, 11

Norn 235

North Carolina 84, 223

Northern Cities Shift 256

Northern Ireland 10.3.1–2; 10, 84, 235, 239,

240, 253

Northern Territory 297

Norwich 84, 216, 245

1111

1011

4111

20111

5111

30111

40111

47111

INDEX 389

not 140

notional or adverbial passive 37

notional concord 286

nouns 33, 37, 39, 44, 46, 98, 99, 123, 128, 286,

331

common 196

mass 99

proper nouns 98

Nova Scotia 251, 253

now 190

NP (noun phrase/nominal phrase) 5.5; 17, 106,

108, 109, 123, 128, 141

number (grammatical) 4, 99, 100, 101, 111

numerals 130, 283

NZE (New Zealand English) 13.2; 11, 69, 74,

84, 231, 246, 296, 312, 313

object 121

objective 107

objective modality 126

obligation 124, 135

obstruents see consonants

occlusives see consonants (stops)

ofﬁcial language 240, 250, 270, 296, 303,

307, 309, 314, 315, 316, 322, 325, 333,

340, 342, 343

Old English 45

Ontario 251, 252, 253

open classes 24, 33, 97, 105

openings 175

operators 103, 123

opposition 26, 149

ordinal numbers see numerals

Orkney Islands 235

orthography see spelling

Otago 305

Ottawa 253

overhearers 189

overlap 185, 220; see also interruptions

over reporting 217

overt prestige 217

Oxford English see RP

Paciﬁc creoles 340

Paciﬁc pidgins 343

Pakistan 314, 324

palatal 70

palatalization 75, 76, 247, 270, 275, 310

palato-alveolar see post-alveolar

Papua New Guinea 345; see also Tok Pisin

paradox 61

parallel development hypothesis 338, 339

parataxis 16

part of speech 57; see also word classes

participants 189

participation framework 192, 193

participles 101, 103, 110, 111, 130, 134

particles 39, 102

passive 17, 37, 57, 109, 111, 121, 142, 159,

328, 342; see also voice

dynamic 121

statal, stative 121

past participles 76, 259, 264, 284, 331

past tense 259, 264, 284

patois 247, 341

pauses 185, 188, 190

Pedi 309

pejorative meaning 43, 44, 56, 210, 211

perception verbs 120, 134, 136

perfect 111, 117, 120, 142, 153, 160, 285

perfective aspect 339, 342, 344

perfective done 257, 263

performance styles 262

performative act 113

performative verbs 170

periphrasis 104

perlocutionary act/force/object/sequel 171,

189

permission 124

person 111

personal pronouns 212; see also pronouns

personal tenor 54, 155, 156, 157; see also

style

phase (speech act): central 176

phases 7.3.2; 175, 177

phatic communion, function, speech 18, 50,

152, 219; see also function (text)

Philadelphia 271

Philippine English, Philippines 314, 324, 332,

347

phonemes 4.2, 12.1.1; 66, 67, 91, 274

phonetic-morphological variation 196

phonetic realization 66, 245, 273

phonetics 16, 66, 67, 96

phonetic variety 4.4.5; 82

phonological opposition 68

phonological processes 4.3.5; 75

phonological reduction 190

phonology 53, 54, 56, 66, 67, 96, 99, 262, 336,

339

phonotactics 4.3.3, 4.3.6, 12.1.3; 73, 75, 77,

237, 243, 274

phrasal units 142

phrasal verbs 28, 32, 40, 155, 290

Pidgin English 67, 316, 317, 318, 321, 335,

336, 347, 348

pidgins and creoles 14.3.3; 9, 268, 321

Pilipino see Filipino

390 INDEX

pitch 86, 87, 215, 222, 332; see also

intonation

pitch change 123

pitch concord 89

place of articulation see articulation

place names 302

Plantation Creole 262, 341

pleonastic subjects 320

plosive see consonants (stops)

plural 76, 128, 129, 133, 159, 237, 264, 331,

341, 343, 345

plural pronoun reference 287

politeness 89, 115, 119, 125, 155, 169, 174,

181, 186, 193, 195, 196, 198, 202, 208,

209, 216, 222, 321

politeness principle 173

politically correct (PC) language 2.5; 11, 35

Polynesia 343

polysemy 24

portmanteau words 37

Portuguese 311, 315, 321, 331, 338, 339

Portuguese Pidgin 311

possessive 76, 99, 101, 128, 341

post-alveolar 70

post-determiners see determiners

post-head act 183

postmodiﬁers 130

power and solidarity 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14,

50, 64, 89, 170, 195, 198, 199, 200, 206,

207, 208, 209, 261, 268, 318, 323, 325,

326, 328, 333, 335

PP (prepositional phrase) 105, 106, 109, 110,

123, 131, 161

pragmatic characteristics 321

pragmatic idioms 3.5; 45, 50, 53, 59, 65

pragmatics 10, 49, 98, 207

pragmatic shift 42

pre-determiners see determiners

predicate complement 107

predication 111

predicative adjective 102, 108

predicative complements 108

predicative nominal 108

predicators 5.5.1; 107, 110, 140

prediction 115

preface 17

preference organization 186

preferred seconds 186

preﬁxes 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 163

pre-head act 183

pre-palatal region see post-alveolar

prepositional phrase see PP

prepositions 87, 98, 102, 105, 142, 237, 244,

287, 289, 311, 319, 335, 337

prescriptivism 3, 6, 100

present perfect 244, 320, 327, 335

prestige 231, 232, 235, 245, 267, 268, 297,

298, 305, 307, 309, 310, 324, 327, 333,

335, 336, 346; see also status

presupposition 136, 161

Prince Edward Island 253

private verbs 120

problem-solution pattern 149

procedural lexical items 149, 156

processes 118

pro-forms 5.8.4; 101, 104, 111, 137, 139,

150

do 139

one 56

so 139

progressive 111, 116, 118, 120, 153, 160, 244,

310, 327, 331, 335, 340, 344

pronouns 4, 16, 73, 87, 98, 100, 150, 151, 159,

167, 195, 196, 237, 241, 286, 287, 307,

312, 331, 341, 343, 345

demonstrative 237

pronunciation 3, 6, 16, 26, 28, 31, 45, 66, 101,

215, 229, 237, 238, 241, 242, 245, 246,

248, 252, 253, 255, 256, 261, 269, 272,

294, 297, 305, 312, 313, 315, 319, 327,

332, 334, 343

gender 216

perception of 218

spelling pronunciations 6

unstressed syllables 300