Gramley, Stephan; P?tzold, Kurt-Michael. A Survey of Modern English

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questions 89, 90, 218, 221; see also tag

questions, interrogatives

quotation marks 282

race 11, 198, 257; see also ethnicity

range 52

r-colouring 74, 81

Received Pronunciation see RP

reciprocal pronouns 100; see also pronouns

reciprocation 178, 179

reciprocity 12, 185, 198, 200, 204, 205, 207,

209

recount 176

reduplication 268, 301, 321

reference 150

referential function 18

reﬂexives 100, 138

regional dialects 4, 5, 7, 13, 69, 72, 91, 227,

228, 338

regional variation 8.3.2; 1, 12, 13, 25, 59, 91,

141, 195, 203, 217, 234, 241, 243, 245,

253, 255, 299, 301, 305, 306, 309, 312,

319, 326

318, 337

relative clauses 61, 90, 131, 138, 159, 264,

312

adverbial 131, 132

fused 132

pronouns, pronominal 101, 110, 131, 259,

287

relevance 146, 173, 189, 194

relexiﬁcation 339

religion 10, 195, 198, 202, 206, 210, 267, 315,

318

remember 136

remoteness 114, 125

repairs 177

repetition 61, 148, 154

reported speech 248; see also indirect speech

reports 113, 165, 166

requests 181

respect 196, 202

restriction (semantic) 43

restrictive clauses 131

resultative perfect 117, 121

reverses 26

rheme 86

rhetorical functions 157

rhetorical questions 64, 159, 166

rhoticity 74, 80, 228, 229, 237, 239, 242,

255, 256, 257, 263, 270, 273, 274, 299,

310, 319, 327; see also r-colouring,

consonants (/r/)

rhyme 58, 61

rhyming slang 246, 301

rhythm 61, 86, 269, 323, 332

ritual insults 219, 262, 268

roots 163

routines, routine formulas see pragmatic

idioms

RP (Received Pronunciation) 3, 6, 7, 11, 66,

69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84,

85, 89, 96, 103, 218, 227, 230, 231,

239, 241, 247, 272, 273, 297, 298,

299, 305, 309, 317, 319, 320, 324, 327,

332

rural varieties 3, 13, 197, 217, 229, 234, 235,

241, 244, 255, 259, 261, 268, 297, 338,

343

Russian 32, 251

SAE (South African English) 7, 11, 66, 84, 85,

231, 296, 305, 307, 313, 314, 316

Afrikaans 13.3.2

Black 13.3.3

Coloured 13.3.4

Eastern Cape 310

gender 223

Indian 13.3.5

White 13.3.1

St Kitts 265

St Lucia 265

St Vincent 265

salutation 204

Samoan 314

Saskatchewan 251

satisfy 179, 181, 182

sayings 60, 61

Scandinavian 32

schedule 165

schemas 7.4.2; 186, 187

schools 8, 9, 10, 234, 268

schwa 79, 82, 86

science and technology, language of 1, 4, 10,

14, 18, 40, 41, 308, 315, 318, 325, 333

Scotch-Irish see Scots; Ulster

ScotE (Scottish English), Scotland 10.2, 10.2.3;

7, 66, 69, 72, 74, 80, 81, 84, 203, 234,

249, 253, 268, 275

Scots 67, 72, 227, 234, 235, 239, 255

Ulster 240, 241

Urban 237

Scottish Gaelic 234

scripts 187

second language 314

secondary shifts 37

secret languages 11

392 INDEX

segmental sounds see phonemes

selection restrictions 54

self-repairs 193

semantic:

contrast 56

derogation 211

features 43

inversion 205

relationships 47

roles 107, 122

shifts 42, 320

semantics 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 148, 149, 167

semi-modal verbs 116, 125, 128

semi-negatives 140

semi-vowels see consonants

sender-addressee 15, 18, 30, 60, 64, 146,

157, 161, 191, 195, 198, 203

sentence 6.5.3; 16, 161, 167

sentence adverbials 104, 131

sentence elements 123, 142

sentence initiator 310

sentence patterns 142, 331

sentence stress 86

sentence types 5.3.3; 108, 137

sequence of tenses 135

sequential dependence 189

serial verbs 342

Sesotho 314

sex-differential 210

sexism 209, 210

sex-preferential 209

shall 115

shared world view 177

Sheng 323

Shetland Islands 235

shibboleths 259

shifts 2.7.1; 35, 36, 163, 290

shortening 2.7.3; 25, 32, 35, 36, 38, 42,

should 137

Sierra Leone 314, 316, 317, 342, 343

silence 169, 185, 186, 220

similes 49

simple form 153

simple present 116

simpliﬁcation of consonant clusters 75, 255,

260, 261, 263, 270, 332

simpliﬁed language 222, 279–83, 316, 317,

331, 336, 337, 338, 339

Singapore English, Singapore 14.2.3; 202, 314,

315, 324, 329, 332, 347

singular they 212

Siswatsi 314

situation of use 6.3.2, 8.3; 145, 155

skip-connecting 188

Skye 235

slang 11, 12, 15, 238

slogans 49

small talk 50, 175, 176, 179, 182

smart 33

smiling 200, 222

smoothing 273, 305

social bonding 177

social class 2, 3, 6, 11, 13, 25, 45, 59, 74, 91,

214, 216, 217, 230, 231, 232, 234, 235,

236, 238, 240, 241, 245, 250, 253, 255,

257, 259, 267, 271, 297, 300, 301, 305,

307, 309, 311, 323

social formulas see pragmatic idioms

social interaction 220

social-interactive see function (text)

socialization 218, 221, 223

social networks 217, 240

social roles 189

social situation 195, 198, 200, 205, 207,

220

social status 26, 31, 44, 45, 175

social variation 11.3; 257

sociolects 6, 12, 13, 47

sociolinguistics 1.5; 209, 215, 216, 232, 245,

255, 271, 301, 312, 313, 319, 320

sociology of language 9

solecisms 4, 19

Solomon Islands Pijin 340, 343, 346

Somalia 316

sonorants 69, 70

Sotho 309

South Africa see SAE

South Carolina 84, 217, 250, 340, 341

Southland 306

Spanish 10, 72, 86, 251, 265, 333, 338,

339

Spanish inﬂuenced English 259, 260, 271

speaker meaning 174

speaker orientation 193

speaking, amount of 219

specialization 43, 44

speciﬁers 129

speech:

amount of 218, 222

styles 213, 219

verbs 134

see spoken language

speech acts 7.2.1; 10, 18, 48, 50, 113, 170,

171, 172, 189, 193, 248

idioms 65

theory 145

speech-in-action 176

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INDEX 393

spelling 4.6.2, 12.2.1; 10, 28, 31, 66, 75, 77,

86, 90, 91, 96, 99, 236, 252, 279, 295

<ch> 92

<-ection>, <-exion> 280

<-er>, <-re> 280

<-gh-> 281

<in->, <en-> 281

<-ll-> 279

<-or>, <-our> 280

<s> 280

<th> 92

and pronunciation 95, 319, 327, 335

<-alm> 276

<-ary>, <-ery>, <-ory> 278

<ea> 242

<-ie> 79, 276

<-ile> 277

<-ing> 310

<-ll-> 279

<-mb> 92, 319

<-ng> 319

<-si-> 276

<-y> 79, 276, 299

spelling reform 94

Spice Islands 337

spoken discourse 56

spoken language 15, 48, 152, 184

Sranan 267, 341, 346

Sri Lanka 314, 324

stack strategy see text strategies

standardization 5, 7, 19

standards 169, 319, 321, 324, 326, 327, 331,

335, 342

statements 137, 171, 190

state verbs 120, 154

stative 103, 119

status 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 195, 198, 200, 204, 206,

215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 315,

318, 323

StE (Standard English) 1.1–2, 1.4; 66, 97, 247,

248, 250, 263, 265, 268, 318, 319, 327,

331, 337, 338, 341, 344

step-by-step procedure see text strategies

stereotypes 50, 210, 218

stigmatization 245, 246, 247, 259

stops see consonants

stories 176, 184, 187, 189, 192, 194

story preface 176

strategies 146

stress 56, 86, 96, 188, 190, 262, 270, 279, 319,

327, 332, 335

stress-timing 86

structure 155, 177

structure words see grammatical words

stump words see clipping

style 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 25, 28, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47,

51, 59, 60, 64, 76, 121, 122, 127, 137,

138, 139, 141, 146, 151, 154, 155, 157,

158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 196, 197,

203, 231, 241, 245, 283, 288, 289, 293,

318, 328, 331, 333, 336

subject 107, 110, 121

subjective modality 126

subjunctive 135, 140, 285; see also mandative

subjunctive

subordinate clauses 109

subordinating conjunction and 244

subordination 17, 138

substratum 228, 235, 238, 240, 241, 243, 244,

260, 331, 336

Sudan 314

sufﬁxes 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 163, 196

suggest 136

superlative 101, 104

superordinate terms 26, 148

superstrate 336

supporting moves 181, 182

supportive language 213, 218, 219, 220, 221

suprasegmentals 4.5; 85

Surinam 339, 340, 341

Survey of English Dialects (SED) 229

Swahili 314, 321, 323, 324

Swaziland 314, 316

Sydney 296, 301, 302

syllable 67, 70, 72, 85

body (head) 88

checked 79

nucleus 88

syllable reduction 252

syllable structure 323

syllable words 38

syllable-timing 86, 319, 323, 332, 335

symbols 162

synonyms 2.2; 25, 58, 148, 151

syntactic blends 16

syntactic stress 86

syntax 98, 147, 150, 158, 167; see also

grammar

taboo language 11, 39, 198, 213

Tagalog see Filipino

tag questions 16, 184, 192, 199, 214, 228, 286,

307, 319, 327, 332

tail 88

Tamil, Tamil Nadu 314, 325, 329, 331

Tanzania 314, 315, 321

Tanzingereza 323

tapped [

ɾ] 246

394 INDEX

tautologies 60, 61

telescope words 37

Telugu 325

tempo 90, 215, 297

temporal clauses 116

tenor 176

tense 47, 57, 61, 76, 101, 103, 110, 111, 124,

136, 142, 151, 155, 160, 166, 167, 263,

331, 335, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344

tensing 79

tentativeness 125, 169, 174

Teochew 329

terminal afﬁxations see sufﬁxes

terminology 6.6.1; 10, 158, 162

terms 162

Texas 251, 261

Tex-Mex 261

text forms 6.7.2; 153, 165

text linguistics 166

text models 6.7.3; 165

text patterns 166

text strategies, text structures 6.3.3; 167

text structuring devices 156

text types 11, 19, 39, 46, 64, 121, 149, 152,

153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 164, 166, 167,

187, 219, 268, 298

texts Chap. 6; 145, 189

textual coordinates 189

textuality 6.1; 145, 167

Thames 247

thanking 89, 328

that-clauses 103, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 166,

167, 285, 327

thematic focus 159

theme-rheme 121, 122, 131, 139, 141, 142,

150, 161, 244

thesauruses 27

titles 196, 197, 207, 210, 211

Tok Pisin 336, 338, 343, 344, 346

Tolai 343

tonality 90

tones 88, 314

Tongan, Tonga 314

tonic segment 88

tonic syllable 88

tonicity 86

topicalization 228, 244, 312

topic of discourse 9.3.1; 213, 215, 218,

219

topic loop 177

topics 7.4.3; 159, 175, 188, 189

toponyms 32

Toronto 253

Torres Strait Broken 303

touch 204, 223

trade and commerce 315, 317, 318, 325, 330,

333, 336, 338

trade jargons 337

traditional dialects 8, 227, 229, 255, 257;

see also dialects

transactional encounters 175

transcriptional systems 4.4.4; 82

transition relevance place 184

transitive verbs 108

triglossia see diglossia

Trinidad-Tobago 265

trinomials see binominals

triphthongs 82

truisms 60, 61

Tswana 309

Turks and Caicos Islands 265

turn taking 171, 181, 186, 187, 189, 194, 220,

298

turns 7.4.1; 184

U and non-U 45

Uganda 314, 316, 321, 323

Ulster see IrE; Northern Ireland

under reporting 217

Union City, New Jersey 260

uniplex 217

unity (textual) 149, 156

universals of language acquisition hypothesis

338, 339

unmarked 112, 119, 141

unreality 114, 125, 126

uptakers 183, 184

urban varieties 3, 13, 74, 228, 234, 235, 241,

243, 245, 246, 249, 253, 261, 262, 268,

275, 315, 323, 338, 343

Urdu 327

usage 7

use of language 2

users 198, 210

utterance 16

Vancouver 253

Vanuatu 314, 343

velum 72

verbal duelling 219

verb classes 5.7.1; 134

verb phrase see VP

verb types 102, 142

verbs 33, 37, 39, 44, 46, 47, 97, 98, 101, 102,

123, 159, 167, 283, 331, 344; see also

auxiliary verbs

vernacular 215, 216, 217, 247, 262, 265, 268,

271, 316, 341, 343

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INDEX 395

Virginia 84

Virginia (Tidewater) 253

vocabulary 14, 15, 16, 17, 23, 158, 167, 236,

238, 243, 252, 255, 256, 257, 265, 268,

270, 295, 301, 305, 312, 313, 320, 328,

331, 335, 336, 337, 344

gender 212

history 28, 47

regional 229

sports 293

structure 47

university 292

vocalization of /l/ 69, 263; see also

consonants (/l/)

vocation 198, 202, 204

vocatives 195, 196, 197, 198, 207, 208,

211

voice 159, 166, 167; see also passive

voice quality 3, 90, 91, 215, 218, 248,

272

voiceless glottal fricative 69; see also

consonants: /h/

voiceless vowel 69; see also consonants

(/h/)

voicing 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 76, 80, 332, 344

volition 116, 124, 125

volitional verbs 134, 136

vowels 4.4; 67, 78, 276, 299, 320, 323, 324,

332

central 270, 311, 319

complexity 78, 79, 246

diphthongs 68, 79, 246, 299, 319

/ 332

/ 82, 239, 243, 252, 253, 255, 256,

257, 262, 270, 277, 300, 305, 310,

319

ɔ/ 319

əυ/ 332

aυ/ 319

centring 80, 82, 231, 242, 273, 300, 305

ə/ 332

[

ɔə] 231

duration 239, 311

levelling 252, 255

long vowels 246

/ 252, 261, 344

/ 237, 242, 253, 261, 270, 310, 312

ɑ/ 81, 229, 231, 239, 242, 243, 253,

255, 256, 257, 262, 270, 273, 274, 299,

306, 309, 310, 312

ɑr/ 277

/ju

/ 246

/ 242, 274

/ 231, 237, 239, 256, 261, 274, 309

merger 262

short vowels:

/ 79, 344

/y/ 237

/e/ 243, 253, 255, 261, 262, 306, 311

/e/ + /o/ 255

/ø/ 237

/æ/ 231, 239, 243, 253, 262, 270, 306,

310

/o/ 239

spelling 93

unstressed 276

ə/ 79, 82, 86, 229, 231, 239, 243,

253, 255, 256, 261, 262, 270, 273,

274, 277, 299, 305, 309, 310, 311,

319

VP (verb phrase) 5.4; 106, 110, 123

WAfrE (West African English), West Africa

14.1.1; 315, 316, 337, 346

Wales 10.1.1; 84

weak forms 16, 74, 87

weather verbs 121

well 192

Welsh 227, 228

Welsh English 228, 248

West African Pidgin English 262, 317, 338,

340, 342, 343, 347

West Indian Creole 247

West Indian English see CaribE

West New York 260

West Samoa 314

Western Australia 297

wh-clauses 103

wh-questions 327

wh-words 137

widening 43

will 111, 115

+ progressive 116

word 2.1; 23, 47

word classes 5.1; 40, 52, 57, 58, 97, 142

word combinations Chap. 3; 28, 48

word family 32

word ﬁelds 25

word form 23, 55

word formation 2.7, 6.6, 6.6.2; 24, 35, 161,

163, 290, 295, 328, 344

word order 5.8.7, 12.3.4; 53, 98, 111, 130,

140, 150, 195, 289, 331

writing see written language

writing systems 10

written language 15, 48, 90, 152

Xhosa 309, 311

396 INDEX

yes and no, use of 320

yes-no questions 138, 328

Yiddish 291

Yod-dropping 75, 247, 251, 252

Yoruba 314, 342

you know 191

Zambia 314, 316, 323

zero derivation see shifts

Zimbabwe 314, 316, 323

Zulu 309, 311

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INDEX 397