Gramley, Stephan; P?tzold, Kurt-Michael. A Survey of Modern English
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A Survey of Modern English
Second Edition
‘This second edition of A Survey of Modern English is an admirable achievement in
providing its readers with concise, but nevertheless comprehensive and clearly written
introductions to the main areas of English linguistics. Its coverage is most impressive,
and this text is warmly recommended as an indispensable study companion and reference
work.’
Bas Aarts, University College London, UK
‘An indispensable companion for university students of English Language and Linguistics,
with an accessible style and impressive range of subject matter.’
Howard Jackson, University of Central England, UK
A Survey of Modern English is the essential guide to modern English structure and usage.
Both comprehensive and accessible, A Survey of Modern English helps students and
teachers navigate and explore the linguistic structure of present-day English and its vari-
eties. The book starts with an account of modern English as a linguistic system, looking
at grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling. It then moves on to consider the
written and spoken use of language as well as social variables, including gender and
ethnicity. The book concludes with an exploration of varieties of English – from the UK,
North America, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, to West Africa,
East Africa and Asia.
The new edition has been completely revised and updated, offering:
• a new introduction looking especially at Standard English, General English and
variation in language
• an exploration of new developments in the study of modern English, such as corpus-
based grammars
• a new section on dictionaries, vocabulary and new words in English
• a range of new examples illustrating topics from grammar to pidgins and creoles
• a new section on power, solidarity and politeness
• new ‘further reading’ sections, updated references and useful websites
Stephan Gramley and Kurt-Michael Pätzold are senior lecturers at the Faculty of
Linguistics and Literature at the University of Bielefeld, Germany.
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A Survey of
Modern English
Second Edition
Stephan Gramley and
Kurt-Michael Pätzold
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THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE iii
First published 1992 by Routledge
Reprinted 1995, 1996, 1999, 2002
Second edition first published 2004 by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
© 1992, 2004 Stephan Gramley and Kurt-Michael Pätzold
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0–415–30034–7 (hbk)
ISBN 0–415–30035–5 (pbk)
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
ISBN 0-203-42597-9 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-44017-X (Adobe eReader Format)
To Kurt Konrad Leo Pätzold
Hanna Pätzold, geb. Zielge
The first, if not the only, begetters
For Hedda
And for all our excellent students
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THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE v
Contents
List of illustrations xi
Preface xiii
Abbreviations xv
Introduction xvii
1 The English language: standards and variation 1
1.1 Standard English 1
1.2 Language attitudes 2
1.3 The emergence of Standard English 4
1.4 Standard and General English 7
1.5 Sociolinguistic dimensions of English 9
1.6 Words in use: the register approach 12
1.7 Further reading 19
PART 1
English as a linguistic system 21
2 Vocabulary 23
2.1 Words and meaning 23
2.2 Lexical relationships 24
2.3 Dictionaries 26
2.4 Growth and structure of the English vocabulary 28
2.5 New words 33
2.6 Euphemisms and politically correct language 35
2.7 Word formation 35
2.8 Shifts of meaning 42
2.9 Meaning change 43
2.10 The register approach 45
2.11 Further reading 47
3 Words in combination 48
3.1 Fixed expressions as clichés 50
3.2 Collocations 51
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THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE vii
3.3 Idioms 55
3.4 Binomials 58
3.5 Pragmatic idioms 59
3.6 Proverbs and commonplaces 60
3.7 Fixed expressions in texts 62
3.8 Further reading 64
4 The pronunciation and spelling of English 66
4.1 The phonology of English 66
4.2 Segmental sounds 67
4.3 The consonants 69
4.4 The vowels 78
4.5 Suprasegmentals 85
4.6 The orthography of English 90
4.7 Further reading 96
5 Grammar 97
5.1 Word classes 97
5.2 Functional phrases 106
5.3 Functional sentence elements 107
5.4 The verb phrase (VP) 110
5.5 The noun phrase (NP) 128
5.6 Nominalization 132
5.7 Catenation 133
5.8 The clause 137
5.9 Further reading 141
PART 2
Uses and users of English 143
6 Written texts and English for specific purposes (ESP) 145
6.1 Textuality 145
6.2 Cohesion and coherence 147
6.3 A typology of texts 152
6.4 ESP and the register model of language 157
6.5 Syntactic features of English for science and technology (EST) 158
6.6 Lexicon and word formation in EST 161
6.7 The EST text 164
6.8 Further reading 166
7 Spoken discourse 168
7.1 General considerations 168
7.2 Meaning 170
7.3 Conversational interaction 174
7.4 Turns, schemas and topics 184
viii CONTENTS
7.5 Discourse markers 188
7.6 Further reading 193
8 Modes of address, power, solidarity and politeness 195
8.1 The linguistic elements of address in English 195
8.2 Power, solidarity and politeness 198
8.3 Domains of modes of address 200
8.4 Situation of use 207
8.5 Further reading 208
9 Language and gender 209
9.1 Reference to males and females 210
9.2 Language use of males and females 212
9.3 Communicative strategies 218
9.4 Language acquisition and development 221
9.5 Non-verbal behaviour 222
9.6 Further reading 223
PART 3
National and regional varieties of English 225
10 English in the British Isles 227
10.1 England and Wales 227
10.2 Scotland 234
10.3 Ireland 239
10.4 Urban British English 245
10.5 Further reading 248
11 English in America 250
11.1 The languages of the United States and Canada 250
11.2 National and regional varieties of AmE 251
11.3 Social variation in AmE 257
11.4 Ethnic varieties of AmE 259
11.5 The languages of the Caribbean 265
11.6 The linguistic continuum 267
11.7 Linguistic characteristics of CaribE 268
11.8 Further reading 270
12 Standard British and American English in comparison 272
12.1 Pronunciation 272
12.2 Spelling and punctuation 279
12.3 Grammar and morphology 283
12.4 Lexis 289
12.5 Further reading 294
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CONTENTS ix