Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada
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210 • HOPKINS, FRANCES ANNE
Council of Women in Canada, and Victorian Order of Nurses. She
died while giving a speech to the Federation of Women’s Club. See
also WOMEN IN CANADIAN HISTORY.
HOPKINS, FRANCES ANNE (1838–1919). Hopkins was born
in England into an artistic family. Her childhood was filled with
refining her painting and sketching skills. She moved to Lachine,
Canada (now Québec), with her husband, Edward. Not content with
remaining at home, she travelled with fur traders and voyageurs on a
number of occasions. These expeditions led to her most recognized
work, which centers on the lifestyle of the voyageurs. Her paintings
are a combination of landscape and portrait art that captured the true
nature of a way of life that was extinguished with the building of the
railroads. Although her work is recognized by many, the artist behind
the work has remained relatively obscure. In 1990, the Thunder Bay
Art Gallery organized the first major exhibition of her works.
HOSE, WALTER (1875–1965). Canada’s most famous sailor of the
modern era, Hose was born in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). He transferred
to the Royal Canadian Navy after long service in the Royal Navy,
and he commanded HMCS Rainbow on the Pacific coast, then trade
defense patrols on the Atlantic coast in 1917–18. As director of the
Naval Service (1921–28) and later chief of naval staff (1928–34),
Rear Admiral Hose established the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer
Reserve, with companies in all prominent Canadian cities. Its value
became obvious in the late 1930s and during World War II. He was
important in the survival of naval force structures and administration
during the dark days of Canadian armaments and defense history. See
also CANADIAN NAVY.
HOUSE OF COMMONS. See PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS; PAR-
LIAMENTARY SYSTEM.
HOWE, JOSEPH (1804–1873). A politician and journalist, Howe was
born in Halifax and became editor of the Nova Scotian in 1828. He
served in the Nova Scotia Colonial Assembly for many years until
1863 and was a firm champion of responsible government. He
engaged in a spirited letter-writing campaign with the British politi-
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HUDSON BAY, ANGLO-FRENCH STRUGGLE FOR • 211
cal leader Lord John Russell, who had outlined British objections to
responsible government in a speech of 1839. In four brilliant, witty
open letters to Russell, Howe reiterated repeatedly his central theme
that the colonists were asking no more than the rights of English
citizens. He served as provincial premier, fighting confederation, but
later joined the federal cabinet as secretary of state. Howe has been
called “the tribune of the people.” His importance to the history of
the evolution of the British Empire and Commonwealth is vast and
secure.
HUDSON BAY, ANGLO-FRENCH STRUGGLE FOR. Hudson
Bay, discovered by Henry Hudson in 1610, became later in the 17th
century an English commercial and strategic waterway, a northern
access to the continental interior. The Hudson’s Bay Company
(HBC) was founded in 1670 to exploit the landing of trade goods
to the Indians and the taking out of furs, principally beaver. The
French came to contest this dominance. War occurred in 1686, and
intermittent armed conflict continued to 1713, when by the Treaty
of Utrecht the French reluctantly and after a great struggle acknowl-
edged English title to Hudson Bay.
Highlights of the struggle include the HBC’s ketch Nonsuch, with
trader Sieur de Groseilliers aboard, which arrived in Hudson Bay in
1668. The crew built Charles Fort at Rupert River, the first English
post on Hudson Bay. Governor Charles Bayley, at the site of the fu-
ture York Fort (later York Factory), formally claimed Rupert’s Land
for the HBC in 1670. Jean Talon, intendant (chief administrator) of
New France, sent an agent, the Jesuit Charles Albanel, overland to
establish a mission on Hudson Bay and coax Pierre Radisson and
Groseilliers to leave the HBC and join the French (1672, 1674). Bay-
ley arrested Albanel in 1675 and sent him as a prisoner to England.
Radisson and Groseilliers entered French employ in 1675. The HBC
built additional posts (Moose Factory, 1673; Fort Albany, 1675;
Old Severn, 1685). French authorities established the Compagnie du
Nord and sent two ships into Hudson Bay with Radisson and Groseil-
liers aboard. A New England post was also established but the HBC
took it, and Radisson and Groseilliers left the fur trade.
Québec and Montréal merchants pressured the government of
New France to send an overland expedition to capture HBC posts,
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212 • HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY
and this was effected by Capt. Pierre de Troyes in 1686 in a brilliant
overland and frontier campaign which caught the English defenders
unawares. Sieur d’Iberville, who went overland with de Troyes,
wintered on Hudson Bay 1686–87 but returned to Québec by sea in
the captured vessel Craven. An English-French diplomatic wrangle
followed. Iberville sailed for Hudson Bay and continued his success-
ful war against the HBC. In 1690, the French launched the Battle for
York Fort, the HBC stronghold, eventually capturing the post in 1694
(another Iberville triumph). York Fort was renamed Fort Bourbon.
It went back to English hands only to have Iberville take it again in
1697. By the Treaty of Ryswick, York Fort was returned once more
to the English; the French regained some posts captured by James
Knight.
In the next war, the French attacked overland in 1709 in a major
expedition (70 Europeans, 30 Indians), but the English garrison at
Fort Albany, aided by a native informant, made a successful defense.
The conflict ended in 1713 with the Treaty of Utrecht.
HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY (HBC). Given an English royal charter
2 May 1670, “The Gentlemen Adventurers of England Trading into
Hudson’s Bay,” the HBC, devolved from French Canadian fur trade
knowledge, native hunting capabilities, and English commerce and
shipping. Headquartered in London, and after 1970 in Winnipeg, the
HBC is the oldest business corporation in North America. The first
governor of the company was Prince Rupert of the Rhine. Rupert’s
Land, the chartered area of monopoly, was named for him. This area
does not conform exactly to the boundaries of northern and western
Canada but was defined as the lands drained by lakes and rivers
flowing into Hudson Bay. The charter required the firm to search
for a Northwest Passage, and the company’s apparent inaction led
to a government inquiry in 1749 and to subsequent expeditions. In
1811, the Earl of Selkirk was granted a large tract of land by the
HBC to create the Red River colony. In 1821, the HBC merged with
the larger North West Company, based in Montréal, but the name
was kept because of the precious charter, which gave the firm politi-
cal stability.
After 1821, the HBC held an unrestricted monopoly and controlled
fur trade harvests. On the frontiers of competition in the Yukon,
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HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY AND ARCTIC EXPLORATION • 213
American mountain west, and Pacific Northwest, the HBC fought to
retain the lion’s share of the trade. By license dated 1821, the HBC
gained a monopoly of British fur trading in areas west of Rupert’s
Land. In 1849, the HBC received from the British government a
charter of grant to the colony of Vancouver Island, and the colony
was for a time a company colony. In 1857, a British parliamentary
inquiry recommended that Canada eventually be given control of
HBC lands, and that meant an end, in 1859, of the 1821 license. The
company was refinanced in the 1860s, revolutionized and diversified,
and soon became a real estate agency. Gradually its northern stores
and its southern department stores became its merchandising focus.
The fur trade continued as its staple until the 1930s, but oil and gas,
railways, mining, and other pursuits advanced readily. By 1989, the
company had ended its involvement in the fur trade and had shifted
its business focus to retail expansion.
The HBC rebranded its stores in 1964 as “the Bay.” In 1978, it
purchased Zellers, a discount chain. In 1979, it acquired Simpson
department stores. The Thomson family took control of the HBC,
outbidding George Weston Ltd., then made an exit from control in
1997. In 2006, American entrepreneur Jerry Zucker purchased HBC
for $1.1 billion, though shock and consternation spread throughout
Canada at this American takeover. On 16 July 2009, the New York
company NRDC Equity Partners, owner of American department
store giant Lord & Taylor, bought Hudson’s Bay Company with
plans for expansion, rationalization, and consolidation, and to pro-
vide a fresh approach to the Bay and Zellers.
Canadian historical studies about the HBC are to be found in the
celebrated journal Canada’s History Magazine, formerly The Beaver
(first issue 1920), published by Canada’s National History Society.
Other historical information is provided in publications of the Hud-
son’s Bay Record Society and Rupert’s Land Historical Society. In
1994, the company donated its archive and artifact collections to
the province of Manitoba. See also HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY
AND ARCTIC EXPLORATION.
HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY AND ARCTIC EXPLORATION.
The Hudson’s Bay Company charter obliged it to undertake a
search for a passage to the South Sea (Pacific), and this led to its role
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214 • HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY AND ARCTIC EXPLORATION
in exploration of the Canadian Arctic. A more pervasive reason for
exploration in high latitudes was search for minerals, whalebone, and
new trading partners, Inuit and Indian, so as to enlarge the scope
and profit of HBC business. This second reason is demonstrated in
the first northern voyage from Hudson Bay and James Bay forts by
Henry Kelsey, from Churchill Fort, July–August 1719, in two ships,
to search for copper. This expedition coasted at least as far north
as 62 degrees, 40 minutes, beyond Marble Island. James Knight, in
1719–21, sailed from London to search the west coast of Hudson Bay
north of 64 degrees for copper, gold, and the fabled Strait of Anian.
Knight and his group all died on Marble Island of sickness and fam-
ine. The HBC exploring expedition in 1721–22 of John Scroggs and
Richard Norton, from London, made further discoveries higher up on
Hudson Bay, with Norton reporting a clear passage way to the west
(dead-end Chesterfield Inlet).
On the Québec shore of Hudson Bay, the company, beginning
in 1684, had trade at Eastmain River, but not until 1723–24 was a
permanent post built, by Joseph Myatt. Ice conditions on that side
of the bay hindered discoveries. Rivalry from New France overland
and from French naval units by sea interrupted HBC trading opera-
tions and shipping, so that until the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, which
granted England full sovereignty in these latitudes, the company’s
Arctic discoveries were fitful and unplanned, except for expedience
of trade.
The change to this set of circumstances came with the campaign of
the Irish landowner and MP Arthur Dobbs, an energetic campaigner
for the search for the Northwest Passage. At his instigation, in 1736,
the HBC sent two vessels under James Napper and Robert Crow on
a trading, mining, and Northwest Passage expedition to search near
Roes Welcome Sound, to survey, and to open trade with Inuit. The
expedition was a failure, except that Napper promised the Inuit that
the HBC traders would return with trade goods. The company sent
annual expeditions north from Churchill, diversifying and extend-
ing trade to higher latitudes. The British government, responding to
Dobbs’s entreaties, sent two Royal Navy vessels, Furnace and Dis-
covery, under Christopher Middleton and William Moor, in 1741–42.
They sailed north from Churchill in company with the HBC vessel
Churchill. They discovered Wager Bay, Repulse Bay, and then the
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HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY AND ARCTIC EXPLORATION • 215
entrance to Frozen Strait. A poor trade was made along the coast with
Inuit, and no Northwest Passage was found, though a few incidental
details were added to scientific knowledge of the Arctic in these lati-
tudes. In 1744, the HBC sent, from Moose Factory, its first explor-
ing expedition to the Eastmain shore, discovering Fort George, the
Great Whale and Little Whale rivers, and reconnoitering Richmond
Gulf. They did not locate a waterway to the Labrador interior; such
a passage would have helped open trade there. In 1746, Dobbs, head-
ing up the North West Committee, sent the ships Dobbs and Califor-
nia to Wager Bay, where surveys were made but no passage found.
A parliamentary inquiry into the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1749, in
response to Dobbs’s criticism, looked into the state and conditions
of HBC trade; the result was no case for annulling the charter nor
throwing the trade open to rivals.
The company began, with Henry Kelsey and Anthony Henday,
to search for trading Indians in the continental interior, the intention
being to attract them to the forts on the bay. Traders on exploration
encountered the Barrens, and the most significant discoveries of
these were undertaken by Samuel Hearne, who set out from Fort
Prince of Wales, Churchill River, in 1769 in company of Indians but
achieved little. In 1770, he tried again and reached Kazan River, 300
miles north of Churchill. His goal was the Coppermine River, which
drains to the Arctic Sea. Hearne broke his quadrant on this expedi-
tion and decided to return to base, further discoveries being futile.
He was robbed by Chipewyan, but on the way back to Fort Prince
of Wales encountered Matonabbee, a friendly, courteous Chipewyan
chief, who offered to help Hearne on a subsequent expedition. This,
the third attempt, was undertaken in the winter of 1770–71. They
crossed the Kazan, found the barren lands around Artillery Lake,
then encountered “Copper Indians” and reached the Coppermine
River 13 July 1771. Hearne surveyed the river and made a famous
chart of it. He reached the Arctic Ocean on 17 July, thus disproving
the existence of a Northwest Passage between Hudson Bay and the
mouth of the Coppermine. He erected a mark claiming the coast for
the HBC. He had reached his goal, but the sight of the great icepack
offshore negated any thought of opening a company trading port on
that coast. He returned by Great Slave Lake, saw the northern lights,
crossed the lake on ice, continued southward to and up the Slave
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216 • HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY AND ARCTIC EXPLORATION
River to near present-day Fort Smith, then returned to Fort Prince of
Wales on 30 June. This was the first overland expedition to the Arctic
Ocean; it closed Hearne’s remarkable voyages of discovery. Placed
in charge of the fort, he surrendered it to Laperouse of the French
naval squadron in 1782 and was conveyed to France. His journal,
which ranks among the greatest in travel literature, was published in
London in 1795.
The HBC continued to explore northern Québec and Labrador with
hopes of finding a route for overland communication. In 1836–40,
John McLean, on instructions, made three overland journeys to find a
route from Fort Chimo to Fort Smith. These discoveries forced a clo-
sure of Chimo and opening of a post at North West River, as the HBC
reorganized its trade under strong economies. Similar explorations
to expand trade but also to counter Russian trade from Alaska were
made in Athabasca and the Yukon, mainly under Samuel Black, in
1824 of the Finlay River, and Robert Campbell, in 1842–44 of the
Pelly River. The HBC’s northern explorations predated those of the
magnetic survey of John Henry Lefroy (undertaken at the instiga-
tion of the Royal Society), and other explorations by the Geological
Survey of Canada, various missionaries, and some American ex-
peditions, such as that to Herschel Island. But they overlapped and
complemented those of the Royal Navy, the leading force in Arctic
discoveries from Greenland to Alaska in the 19th century.
In 1837–39, Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson led an HBC
exploring expedition of amazing endurance from Fort Chipewyan to
explore those parts of the north coast of America not already explored
by John Franklin in 1819–22 and 1825–27. From the Mackenzie
River, they followed the shoreline west, completing the discovery
between Return Reef and Point Barrow, Alaska, and eastward from
the Mackenzie, between Turnagain Pont and Fury and Hecla Strait.
In 1846, John Rae went north from York Factory to complete the
survey between William Edward Parry’s Fury and Hecla Strait and
Dease and Simpson’s farthest east of Castor and Polux Bay; he made
another expedition the next year, leaving only Boothia Peninsula as
the remaining unexplored part of the north coast of America. In 1854,
he heard Inuit reports of the fate of the Franklin expedition and pur-
chased relics from Inuit who had obtained them from corpses of the
naval explorers. He returned to York Factory and reported the first
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HURON • 217
definite news of the fate of the Franklin expedition, last heard of nine
years before. The last of the great HBC explorers, Rae championed
light traveling techniques, employing advice, materials, and supplies
of the Inuit. His extensive travels closed geographical inquiries by
the HBC in the Arctic; these were succeeded by those of various
Canadian governments, mainly Marine and Fisheries Department ex-
peditions, North West Mounted Police (later RCMP) patrols, whaling
and fishing searches, scientific and missionary inquiries, and foreign
examinations, mainly U.S. and Norwegian.
HUGHES, SAMUEL (1853–1921). Born at Darlington, Canada West,
and educated in Toronto, Sir Samuel Hughes was the editor and pub-
lisher of the Lindsay Warder and a master of local politics. Hughes
was elected to Parliament as a Conservative in 1892. A nationalist
and imperialist, he advocated strong Canadian forces for the South
African War (Boer War). He fought in the war but came home
under a cloud, though in some eyes a hero. He promoted the Ross
rifle, which became the national arm. In 1911, Wilfrid Laurier’s
government fell. Hughes became minister of militia and defense
in Robert Borden’s government. His energy and drive led to vast
changes in the militia. He was important in the mobilization of the
Canadian Expeditionary Force in August 1914 for World War I.
He established Valcantier, Québec, as a training base. His work was
often disorganized. Madness or lack of judgment or impulsiveness
showed themselves, but he was brought down from influence by the
defective Ross rifle. Hughes disregarded Borden’s advice and was
removed from the cabinet: “a nightmare removed,” said Sir George
Foster, deputy prime minister.
HURON. The Huron (or Wendat) confederacy consisted of four sepa-
rate tribes: the Bear, the Cord, the Rock, and the Deer. The confed-
eracy acted as a protective union against the Iroquois. The strongest
tribe was the Bear, which accounted for about half the population of
the Huron at the time of European contact. The Huron were located
in southern and southwest Ontario. They were farmers of the land:
agriculture was the main element of their livelihood. The principal
enemies of the Huron were the Iroquois south of the St. Lawrence
River. After the arrival of Europeans, the Huron suffered a large
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218 • HURONIA
decrease in population due to smallpox and other diseases. The Iro-
quois took advantage of this and attacked the Huron with firearms
bought from the Europeans. By 1648, the Iroquois had reduced the
number of Huron further and many fled Ontario or became part of
the Iroquois nation. Remnant groups survived. Many others went
to Montréal or to Ohio and Michigan, where they were known as
Wyandot. Many live in Oklahoma today. Prior to their downfall, the
Huron were amicable traders with the Europeans and developed rela-
tions with the Jesuit missionaries from France. See also HURONIA;
INDIANS.
HURONIA. The area known as Huronia was the peninsular portion of
today’s Ontario, adjacent to Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. It was the
focus of the Jesuit missions to the Huron native peoples. The Hu-
ron traded with the French at Montréal. The Jesuits (and Recollets
before 1632) worked to establish a systematic network of missions.
Agriculture and fur trading developed. Iroquois expansion into
Huron areas or destruction of Huron trading parties led to a crisis in
the 1640s and the collapse of Huronia as a Jesuit mission in 1649.
Many Huron died; others left the area. Ste.-Marie among the Hurons,
an Ontario-administered heritage museum near Midland, Ontario,
has preserved the main features of Huronia’s history. See also
BRÉBEUF, JEAN DE; CARHAGOUHA; STE.-MARIE AMONG
THE HURONS.
HURRICANE HAZEL. Hurricane Hazel, 15 October 1954, battered
southern Ontario, leaving in its wake a terrible toll: thousands home-
less, $25 million in property damage, and 88 persons dead. Hailed as
Canada’s storm of the century, it was later rivaled by the ice storm
of January 1998.
HUTCHINSON, BRUCE (1901–1992). Dubbed the dean of Canadian
journalism, Bruce Hutchinson worked first at the Victoria Daily
Times, then became a regular columnist for the Vancouver Sun. He
was editor of both these papers and, for a time, editor of the Winni-
peg Free Press. Born in Prescott, Ontario, he spent most of his early
years in Victoria’s James Bay. He wrote of these early years in The
Far Side of the Street (1976). After his early experience as a reporter
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IBERVILLE, SIEUR D’ • 219
and writer in Victoria, he went to Ottawa to work in the parliamen-
tary press gallery, becoming well acquainted with national political
affairs and international relations. Hutchinson bought property in
Saanich (Christmas Hill), which he used as a base of operations, and
later acquired a summer property at Shawnigan Lake, Vancouver
Island. He continued to write for most of his life. Chief among his
books are The Unknown Country, The Fraser, The Incredible Ca-
nadian (about William Lyon Mackenzie King), The Struggle for
the Border, and Mr. Prime Minister. “I’ll work for anybody but I’ll
only work out of Victoria,” he asserted. He received many awards,
including an honorary doctorate from Yale University. In 1967, he
was named to the Order of Canada. A Liberal by persuasion, he
was a passionate defender of his country and believed the battle for
unity was well worth the toil and struggle.
HYDE PARK DECLARATION. In April 1941, during World War
II, Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King met
with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the president’s home
in Hyde Park, New York. The subsequent declaration signed there
by the two leaders increased the amount of raw materials the United
States would buy from Canada, and Roosevelt agreed that Great
Britain’s account would be charged under the Lend-Lease Agree-
ment for industrial components sent to Canada for incorporation into
munitions destined for Great Britain. This agreement eased Canada
of financial worries for the remainder of the war; it also linked the
economies of the two countries more closely together.
– I –
IBERVILLE, SIEUR D’ (PIERRE LE MOYNE) (1661–1706).
Soldier and fur trader Iberville’s heroic Canadian expeditions were
primarily against the English forts in Hudson Bay. He captured
York Fort in 1694 and recaptured it in 1697. He also took St. John’s,
Newfoundland, in 1696. In 1697, in order to restrict the English
settlement to the Atlantic coast, Iberville was sent south to find the
mouth of the Mississippi River and establish a fort there. He named
the area Louisiana.
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