Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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220 • IMMIGRATION

IMMIGRATION. After aboriginal arrivals (the first immigrants),

French from Normandy, Breton, and Picardy planted the first main

colonies in Acadia and the St. Lawrence Valley. English and Scots

settlements, as well as Irish and Welsh, also were established in the

17th century. By 1763, the immigrant population of New France,

including in-colony human propagation, brought the total to between

65,000 and 75,000. Loyalist immigration to Nova Scotia and Qué-

bec consequent to the American Revolution brought new communi-

ties to the St. John River valley and to lands along the St. Lawrence

River, Lake Ontario, and Lake Erie. As a result, new colonies were

founded: New Brunswick (1784) and Upper Canada (1791).

The Hudson’s Bay Company assisted immigration to Red River

in the second decade of the 19th century but did not otherwise en-

courage colonization, especially at Vancouver Island. The British

assisted immigration of Scots and Irish from the 1820s through the

1850s, boosting the English-speaking populations of Canada. The

Canadian Pacific Railway had an immigration scheme, and so

did the Salvation Army (founded by William Booth in 1865) and

other church denominations and groups. Barnardo children from

Great Britain were immigrants, too. Named after Irish social worker

Thomas John Bernardo, 30,000 of these homeless or orphaned chil-

dren from British slums were placed with Canadian families between

1870 and 1930. Under Clifford Sifton, western Canadian immigra-

tion was promoted to fill up vacant, agricultural lands. Between 1905

and 1912, nearly a quarter of a million homesteaders arrived in the

prairie provinces, attracted by good land and promises of more. This

brought many new communities from northern and eastern Europe,

including Iceland, Ukraine, Belgium, Holland, and Germany. Chi-

nese immigration to British Columbia began essentially with the

BC gold rush. It continued with the introduction of Chinese labor for

the building of the Canadian Pacific and other railways. Japanese im-

migration to British Columbia began in 1877. Sikh immigration from

the Punjab occurred beginning at the turn of the 20th century. In May

1914, HMCS Rainbow was used in aid to the civil power at Van-

couver to turn away 360 illegal Sikh immigrants aboard the Japanese

ship Komagata Maru. About 4,000 Sikhs lived in British Columbia

before their immigration was banned in 1908. Asian immigration

was curtailed by agreement with Japan or by legislation such as the

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IMPERIAL ORDER DAUGHTERS OF THE EMPIRE • 221

“head tax” on Chinese. In 1967, the last remnants of exclusion on the

grounds of race were expunged from Canadian legislation.

After 1945, more southern Europeans immigrated to Canada,

principally Italians and Greeks. France, after 1763, supplied hardly

any immigrants to Canada or to Québec. In the 20th century, the

United Kingdom headed the list of countries supplying immigrants to

Canada, followed by the United States. However, Statistics Canada

reported that as of 1996, the number of European immigrants to

Canada had fallen to less than 50 percent of the annual total. In 1996,

10.5 percent of all immigrants came from Hong Kong, 8.5 percent

from the People’s Republic of China, and 6.9 percent from India.

Others came from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Poland, Taiwan, Viet-

nam, the United States (2.8 percent), and the United Kingdom (2.4

percent). The 1996 census revealed Britain and other European coun-

tries accounted for 47 percent of the 5 million immigrants then living

in the country. This is the result of the growing influx of arrivals

from Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and other sources. Half

of all immigrants as of 1996 lived in one of three cities: Toronto,

Montréal, and Vancouver, in that order. In the 1990s and after, half

of all immigrants went to Ontario, Canada’s largest province. Thus

42 percent of Toronto’s population was made up of immigrants, com-

pared with one-third for Vancouver.

The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act of 2002 strengthened

the constitutional rights of immigrants. The categories of immigrants

are “family,” “independent,” and “refugee.” Figures for 2008 show a

total of 247,243 registered immigrants. Of these, 65,567 have been

classified as “family,” 149,072 as “independent,” and 21,860 as “refu-

gee.” The 2001 census shows 34 ethnic groups with at least 100,000

persons in each (of a total population that year of more than 30 mil-

lion). Visible minorities shown in the 2001 statistics are South Asian (4

percent), Chinese (3.9), Black (2.5), and Filipino (1.1). Other minori-

ties shown are German (10.18 percent), Italian (4.6), Ukrainian (4.6),

and smaller figures for Dutch, Polish, Swedish, and others. Canada’s

immigration rate is one of the highest in the world. See also CHINESE

CANADIANS; JAPANESE CANADIANS; UKRAINIANS.

IMPERIAL ORDER DAUGHTERS OF THE EMPIRE (IODE).

In a climate of patriotism fueled by the South African War (Boer

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222 • IMPERIAL ORDER DAUGHTERS OF THE EMPIRE

War), the Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire was founded in

Montréal in 1900 by Margaret Clark Murray. Murray had empire-

wide intentions for the Canadian women’s patriotic organization,

which was originally named the Federation of Daughters of the

British Empire and Children of the Empire. Her imperial ambitions,

however, were stopped by a rival British women’s patriotic organiza-

tion formed in 1901, the Victoria League. In 1901, Toronto became

the IODE’s national center and Edith Nordheimer the president. With

the exception of a few satellite chapters in pre-confederation New-

foundland, United States, Bahamas, Bermuda, and India, the IODE

remained confined to Canada, while the Victoria League expanded

from Britain to South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.

Throughout the 20th century, the IODE was associated with a va-

riety of patriotic and charitable organizations, including the Young

Women’s Christian Association, Red Cross, Salvation Army, and

Girl Guides. Unlike most other women’s organizations, patriotism

was the IODE’s initial and enduring objective, with all of its maternal

work directed toward the promotion of citizenship. Membership was

open to “all women and children in the British Empire or foreign land

who hold true allegiance to the British Crown.” Most members were

of Anglo-Celtic ethnicity and Protestant in religion. The order was

organized into national, provincial, municipal, and local chapters that

were segregated along occupational, ethnic, religious, and age lines.

Elite Canadian families such as the Eaton’s and Gooderhams were

represented—Mrs. A. E. Gooderham was the president from 1911–

19. Although politically conservative, the IODE supported women’s

higher education and suffrage. IODE’s greatest significance was

during wartime—reflected in membership peaking at 50,000 during

the World War I. Membership declined to 20,000 during the inter-

war years and then rose to 35,000 during World War II. Ontario

always enjoyed the largest membership. After World War II, mem-

bership steadily declined, with Québec experiencing the most rapid

drop in numbers. Yet the IODE outlived the empire it was formed to

serve. At the beginning of the 21st century, there were approximately

7,000 members nationwide.

The IODE’s longevity can be explained by its stable organiza-

tional hierarchy that enabled it to swing into action especially in

times of crisis, its strong family networks, and the input of talented

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INDIANS • 223

individuals. Excellent communication was ensured by the quarterly

magazine Echoes that in particular benefited from long-serving

editors Mary Kertland and Agnes Mary Pease. Among the members

were “firsts” for women in political positions, such as Mayor Char-

lotte Whitton, Lieutenant Governor Pauline McGibbon, and federal

government minister Ellen Fairclough. Many respected educators

were among the members, including Wilhelmina Gordon, first

woman lecturer at Queen’s University, and Mary Bollert, first dean

of women at the University of British Columbia, both of whom used

their expertise to execute the IODE War Memorial Scholarships—

a major Canadian education initiative. The IODE also survived so

long because it adapted to the times. By the end of the 20th century,

it had made the transition from patriotism to charity. Its history of

arguably doing more than any other patriotic organization to pro-

mote a British Canada, and of being the largest women’s patriotic

organization in the British Empire, was officially jettisoned. Overall,

the IODE’s major contribution was to bolster the Canadian state

from the sphere of women’s unpaid maternal work. It had a major

impact in the areas of education, health, welfare, citizenship, im-

migration, and war work. It was well organized, well respected,

and pragmatic.

INDIAN KINGS. The Indian Kings of Canada were four Mohawk

sachems who went to London in 1710 to plead for the assistance of

Queen Anne. They were feted there, and they created a sensation.

One of the chiefs was Brant, grandfather of the famous Joseph Brant.

As a result of the Indians’ petition to the crown, funds were pro-

vided for a chapel (the Mohawk Chapel, near Brantford, Ontario),

a Bible, and a silver communion service (later divided between the

Grand River Reserve and the Deseronto settlement, Bay of Quinte).

Missionaries were subsequently sent to the Mohawk by the Society

for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, a London-based

missionary society. The Indian Kings’ visit called attention to giving

military and religious protection against the French in Canada. See

also INDIANS; IROQUOIS.

INDIANS. Indians, along with Inuit and Métis, are referred to collec-

tively as the “aboriginal peoples of Canada” in the Constitution Act

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224 • INDIANS

of 1982. Prior to the passage of this act, each of the three aboriginal

groups received some form of legal recognition.

Indian has many definitions and uses, and the differentiation of

meanings is both striking and noteworthy of attention. Applied by

Columbus to the people he encountered, the term has been used by

Europeans for nearly 500 years to identify the aboriginal people of

the Americas. This misnomer acquired legal meaning in the Procla-

mation of 1763, which made references to “the said Indians.” That

document further makes reference to these “Nations or Tribes of In-

dians.” By this usage in constitutional law and practice, Indians has

acquired legal existence in Canadian law, both as the signatories of

treaties and land claims settlements and as “bands” under the Indian

Act. Other statutes, such as the National Parks Act of 1974, refer to

“people of native origin.” The Ontario Child and Family Services Act

of 1984 refers to “native person,” and British Columbia’s First Citi-

zens Fund authorized grants to persons of “North American Indian

race.” But many further names have been given to “Indians.” These

include First Nations, aboriginals, aboriginal peoples, and First

Peoples. But the term Canadian Indian is not used. Even though

wisdom provides abundant advice that Indian is a misnomer, the term

still, and oddly, has legitimacy in Canadian law.

There are many different legal meanings of Indian. Generally

speaking, it means persons coming within the collective descrip-

tion of those specified under the Proclamation of 1763. Another

classification is Status Indian, that is, registered, or entitled to be

registered, as an Indian under the Indian Act. Those not registered

are classified as Non-Status Indians. Individuals who are entitled to

be registered under the Indian Act are eligible for tax exemption, can

occupy reserve lands, can receive funding for prescriptions and medi-

cal services, have hunting, fishing and trapping rights, and generally

speaking are granted funding for post-secondary education. Those

not entitled to be registered under the act are not able to access these

benefits.

Treaty Indians, in other words, have different entitlements to the

benefits of treaties than nontreaty Indians. Further, there are differ-

ent legal positions for on-reserve and off-reserve Indians. But all

band members are Indians, including nonstatus band members. The

Indian Act recognizes and regulates bands. The Indian Act of 1876

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INDIANS • 225

defined band to mean any “tribe, band or body of Indians” who

have a reserve or an annuity. Tribe was not defined. To be a band, a

particular group must first constitute a body. A body of Indians is a

band if it has reserve lands, government trust funds, or is the subject

of a cabinet declaration. Over time, many groupings have been dis-

covered that fall outside the normal definition, the Alberta Lubicon

being one such. An Indian band is a body of persons with unique

corporate status.

The Indian Register, maintained by the Department of Indian Af-

fairs and Northern Development, is the list of persons registered as

Indian. This is where the individual has distinction in law from the

collective designation. Registration is a means by which an individual

can provide evidence of his or her status as an Indian. It is from the

entitlement to register that the rights of status Indians flow. Band lists

are kept by the band or by the department, or sometimes both. There

exists a bewildering list of federal laws and regulations in regards to

Indians: the Indian Oil and Gas Act, Indian Estates Regulations, In-

dian Band Election and Council Procedure Regulations, Indian Band

Council Borrowing Regulations, Indian Health Regulations, Indian

Reserve Traffic Regulations, and others.

The aim of Canadian governments in the 19th century was to

enfranchise Indians and thus take them off reserve and into main-

stream society. By the Province of Canada’s Gradual Civilization

Act of 1857, males could be enfranchised and lose Indian status.

By the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869, women marrying

non-Indians, that is Euro-Canadian, Métis, or nonstatus Indians,

lost their status. In 1876, the Indian Act also said that a university

graduate lost his status; the same applied to any who entered one

of the professions. Indian communities resisted enfranchisement.

Gender discrimination was blatant, for if a man married out, he did

not lose status, but a woman who did lost hers. The Ojibwa woman

Jeanette Lavell fought this in court and lost, but a Maliseet, Sandra

Lovelace, succeeded in having this policy branded as discriminatory

by the UN Human Rights Committee in 1981. The Canadian Charter

of Rights and Freedoms theoretically ended all such discriminations

and brought to an end the process of enfranchisement. But it did not

totally exclude discriminations. Changes to the Indian Act are ongo-

ing, reflecting appeal in the British Columbia Court of Appeal in

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226 • INNIS, HAROLD ADAMS

2009. Prior to 1985, women and their children lost their eligibility for

status under the Indian Act if the woman married a nonnative man,

but the opposite held true for Indian men. The Department of Indian

and Northern Affairs subsequently prepared ameliorative legislation

to be introduced to Parliament.

Over time, Indians have recovered rights of hunting, fishing, trap-

ping, and food gathering. Native religion is afforded protection under

law. The practice of native religion is guaranteed by the Charter of

Rights and Freedoms. In addition, the Constitution Act of 1982, sec-

tion 35 (1), affords protection for the entrenchment of aboriginal and

treaty rights.

For historical details of various Indian nations or bands, see

ASSINIBOINE; BEOTHUK; BLACKFOOT CONFEDERACY;

HAIDA; HURON; IROQUOIS; KWAKIUTL; MI’KMAQ;

NISGA’A; NUU’CHAH’NULTH; PLAINS CREE; TSIMSHIAN.

See also ABORIGINAL RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS; BIG BEAR;

GITXSAN-WET’SUWET’SU LAND CASE; INDIAN KINGS;

NUNAVUT; OKA; PEMMICAN; PONTIAC’S WAR; SHAWNA-

DITHIT; TECUMSEH; THANADELTHUR.

INNIS, HAROLD ADAMS (1894–1952). An economist, historian,

soldier, and social scientist, Innis was born in Otterville, Ontario.

He wrote histories of staple trades and communications and spent

most of his professional life at the University of Toronto. He wrote

widely on fur, wheat, railways, pulp and paper, and communica-

tions and was the most important scholar to write histories on the

economic development of what became Canada. His works on

staples and on communications are fundamental to an understand-

ing of Canada’s economic history and the nation’s continuing diffi-

culties as a world trader. Innis also wrote histories of the Canadian

Pacific Railway, wheat, and the cod fisheries. His most important

book was The Fur Trade in Canada (1930). Innis claimed that the

fur trade and its voyager canoeing and trekking routes marked out

the future political boundaries of Canada. He also argued that be-

cause Canada’s staples economy was dominant on a world stage, it

would remain both northern and marginal. The fur trade linked Eu-

ropean trade items, shipping, and capital with Montréal-centered

warehousing and exchange; moreover, it linked European traders,

French Canadian voyageurs and labor, and First Nations energy,

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INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY COMMISSION, UNITED STATES AND CANADA • 227

talents, and demands. Innis highlighted the pervasive influence of

the United States in Canada’s more recent development. By his

many works, exemplary as pioneering social science in Canada and

reflective of American scholarly influences, Innis became recog-

nized as a truly international scholar. His significance in critical

media and communications was strong. He also had an apprecia-

tion of the north in Canadian identity and development. He trav-

eled northern Canadian rivers by canoe and barge, increasing his

knowledge of resources and difficulties of transportation. See also

HISTORICAL WRITING.

INTELLIGENCE SERVICES. See SECRET SERVICE.

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY COMMISSION, UNITED

STATES AND CANADA. The boundary commission had its be-

ginning with the appointment of the commissioners to survey and

mark that section of the Alaska boundary line as fixed by the Alaska

Boundary Tribunal in 1903. Legal authority for the International

Boundary Commission was provided by a convention concluded in

1906 between the United States and Great Britain. This convention

established a joint commission to survey and mark the boundary that

begins at Mount St. Elias on the 141st degree of west longitude and

runs due north to the Arctic Ocean. The commissioners who were

conducting the survey under the terms of the award of the 1903 tri-

bunal were also appointed to conduct the new survey.

The duties of these commissioners were expanded by the treaty

signed 11 April 1908 between the United States and Great Britain.

This treaty provided for the resurveying and remarking of the entire

boundary between the United States and Canada except the bound-

ary of Alaska. Each article of the treaty defined a specific section

of the boundary: Article I, through Passamaquoddy Bay; Article II,

from the mouth to the source of the St. Croix River; Article III, from

the source of the St. Croix River to the St. Lawrence River; Article

IV, from the St. Lawrence River to the mouth of the Pigeon River;

Article V, from Pigeon River to the Lake of the Woods, Article VI,

from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains;

Article VII, boundary from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of

Georgia; and Article VIII, from the 49th parallel of north latitude to

the Pacific Ocean.

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228 • INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION, UNITED STATES AND CANADA

Each article, except Article IV, included a provision for the estab-

lishment of a joint commission to carry out the terms of the article.

Article IV, which concerned the water boundary, provided for the

surveying and marking of the boundary by the International Joint

Commission, United States and Canada. Although the treaty pro-

vided for the creation of seven commissions in addition to the Alaska

commissions established by the 1903 tribunal and the 1906 conven-

tion, the same persons were appointed to serve on all the commis-

sions; thus, each country was represented by only one commissioner

for the whole of the U.S.-Canadian boundary line. See also INTER-

NATIONAL WATERWAYS COMMISSION, UNITED STATES

AND CANADA.

INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION, UNITED STATES

AND CANADA (IJC). The IJC was established under treaty be-

tween the United States and Great Britain on 11 January 1909. The

commission has a threefold jurisdiction. Its authority is final in all

cases involving the use or diversion of boundary waters of the United

States and Canada, or rivers crossing the boundary; it investigates

and reports on questions relating to conditions along the boundary,

which may be referred to it by either of the two governments; and

it may settle any question that the two governments agree to refer

to it for that purpose. The commission was made a permanent court

of arbitration by Article X of the treaty. Cases involving matters of

prime interest to states, provinces, and nationals have come before

the commission for investigation, report, or decision. Among these

cases are those involving the use of boundary waters, water levels of

the Lake of the Woods, the practicability of improving the upper St.

Lawrence River for both navigation and water power, and damage

to orchards by fumes from the smelter at Trail, British Columbia.

The commission is composed of three U.S. commissioners and three

Canadian commissioners. See also INTERNATIONAL BOUND-

ARY COMMISSION, UNITED STATES AND CANADA; INTER-

NATIONAL WATERWAYS COMMISSION, UNITED STATES

AND CANADA.

INTERNATIONAL WATERWAYS COMMISSION, UNITED

STATES AND CANADA. In 1902, the U.S. Congress requested

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INTERNATIONAL WATERWAYS COMMISSION, UNITED STATES AND CANADA • 229

the president to invite Great Britain “to join in the formation of an

international commission, to be composed of three members from

the United States and three who shall represent the interests of the

Dominion of Canada, whose duty it shall be to investigate and report

upon the conditions and uses of the waters adjacent to the boundary

lines between United States and Canada, including all waters of the

lakes and rivers whose natural outlet is by the St. Lawrence River

to the Atlantic Ocean.” The commission was to report on means

to regulate water levels and diversion of water and on methods for

improving and regulating navigation on boundary waters. The invita-

tion tendered by the U.S. ambassador at London was accepted by the

Foreign Office in 1903.

When the full commission met on 25 May 1905, it was agreed

that the chair of the U.S. Section would serve as chair of the body at

its meetings in the United States, and the chair of the Canadian Sec-

tion would preside over meetings held in Canada. In interpreting the

scope of the law, the British government preferred a broad interpre-

tation that included almost the entire U.S.-Canadian water boundary

extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. The U.S. Section

contended that the law restricted the commission to discussing mat-

ters pertaining only to that part of the water boundary that flowed

into the St. Lawrence River. In June 1905, the Canadian government

instructed its representatives to proceed with the work of the commis-

sion within the scope prescribed by the U.S. Section.

In 1905, the commission defined 11 problems to be discussed.

These concerned such matters as the uses of the waters of the Sault

Ste. Marie and Niagara rivers, differences in the marine regulations

of the two countries, maintenance of effective water levels, illegal

fishing, and construction of channels.

Until 1908, the International Waterways Commission functioned

within the scope of the U.S. act of 1902 as agreed to by the British

government. A treaty concluded on 11 April 1908 expanded the

commission’s duties. Article IV of this treaty empowered the six

commissioners to reestablish the boundary line beginning at the point

of its intersection with the St. Lawrence River near the 45th parallel

of north latitude, through the Great Lakes and communicating water-

ways to the mouth of Pigeon River at the western shore of Lake Su-

perior. This section of the northern boundary was originally defined

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