Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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230 • INTERNMENT, 1914–1918

in the provisional treaty of peace of 1782, and most of the points of

controversy were settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842.

The whole commission held its first meeting under terms of Ar-

ticle IV on 2 June 1908 at Buffalo, New York. On 15 August 1913,

the International Waterways Commission “fixed and adopted” the

boundary line as surveyed and marked. The final report was offi-

cially transmitted to the U.S. and Canadian governments on 29 April

1915. See also INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY COMMISSION,

UNITED STATES AND CANADA; INTERNATIONAL JOINT

COMMISSION, UNITED STATES AND CANADA.

INTERNMENT, 1914–1918. During World War I, under the 1914

War Measures Act, 7,762 resident enemy aliens were interned out

of a registered population of 120,000 (in the United States, 2,300

were interned out of a registered population of 800,000 in 1917).

Most of the internees were nationalities of the Austrian-Hungarian

Empire, notably Germans and in larger numbers Ukrainians. Intern-

ment camps, 24 in all, were established at such places as Vernon,

Mara Lake, Morrissey, Banff, Castle Mountain, and Jasper. The in-

ternment was administered by the Internment Operations Directorate.

The Dominion Parks Brand and the BC Department of Public Works

contracted with the directorate for labor, and to them was entrusted

confinement and maintenance. Internees were used in road and

bridge construction, and an intense period of construction occurred

in the mountains of British Columbia and Alberta, from the BC

border to Jasper. The workers often engaged in work stoppages or

slowdowns; some tried to escape and succeeded while others failed

in the attempt. The system was benign, not tyrannical, though some

historians have attempted to demonstrate its brutal, repressive nature

and questioned its legality. Japanese Canadians were interned in

World War II.

INUIT. An aboriginal people of Canada living in the eastern Northwest

Territories (NWT), the Inuit were previously called Eskimos; their

homeland is Nunavut. The relocation experiment of several Inuit

communities was organized by Canada’s Department of Resources

and Development and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The

relocations were from Port Harrison, Québec, to Grise Fiord (Craig

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IROQUOIS • 231

Harbor) and Resolute Bay (1953–55). Others, some earlier, were to

Devon Island (1934), Baffin Island (1926), King George Island and

Sleeper Island (1951–52), and Churchill (1953). Canadian govern-

ment authorities—especially former commissioners of the NWT—

have denied that the Inuit were “human flags” to reinforce Canadian

sovereignty in the high Arctic. Official records reveal the govern-

ment’s purpose was to overcome the “Eskimo problem”—unstable

economy, poor health, and growing welfare dependency. Policy

directives of the time aimed at self-sufficiency and maintenance of

traditional ways of life. Relocations were physically and emotionally

difficult for the Inuit, who did not “volunteer.” Inuit were not part

of the general political discussions that led to their removals to high

latitudes; mutual consent was absent from the process. Trusteeship,

and government obligation, propelled policy. The Inuit are accorded

status of aboriginal peoples of Canada under terms of the Constitu-

tion Act of 1982 and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

IROQUOIS. The Iroquoian peoples speak a common language. The Ir-

oquois Confederacy was located along the southern shoreline of Lake

Ontario and the St. Lawrence River, known to scholar William Fen-

ton and others as Iroquoia. This was excellent corn-growing country.

Initially, the confederacy consisted of five nations: the Mohawk,

Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. The largest tribe in the con-

federacy was the Seneca, but the most aggressive was the Mohawk.

The Iroquois nation fought many bitter battles with other surrounding

natives. The Iroquois prevented the French from expanding up the St.

Lawrence River. After Samuel de Champlain led the Huron and al-

lies to a great defeat of the Mohawks on Lake Champlain in 1609, the

Iroquois Confederacy became permanent enemies of the French and

allied themselves with the British. This changed in 1700 when the

Iroquois, with the Abenakis and Ottawa, agreed to peace terms with

the French. In 1701, at Montréal, the Iroquois entered into a great

treaty of alliance with the French. Kateri Tekakwitha, a Mohawk, be-

came a Roman Catholic in 1676. She founded a Mohawk community

at Kahnawake, near Montréal. Known as a miracle worker, she was

entombed at Kahnawake after her death in 1680.

Meanwhile, the Iroquois in search of fur-bearing regions were a

force that resulted in the destruction of Huronia and the scattering

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232 • JAMES BAY AGREEMENT

of the remnant Huron in 1649. In 1713, the Tuscarora nation from

the Carolinas fled to Canada from white settlers. They were accepted

into the confederacy, creating the present-day League of Six Nations.

During the Seven Years War, the Six Nations shifted alliance from

the French to the British, a remarkable development that killed the

French empire in northern North America. They assisted the British

in conquering New France. Many Iroquois warriors fought for the

British in the War of 1812. The population of the Iroquois declined

after contact with Europeans, due mainly to smallpox and bitter wars

with the Huron and French.

The Six Nations fought with the British against the Americans in

the American Revolution. They were rewarded with land grants in

Canada. One of these was the Grand River, where they settled (near

Brantford). Joseph Brant, their leader, sold many of their lands.

In 2007, the Six Nations set up the Haudenosaunee Development

Institute (HDI), the first of its kind in Canada, to demand develop-

ment fees in the Haldimand Tract. This is a strip of land encompass-

ing 10 kilometers on either bank of the Grand River, stretching from

its mouth on Lake Erie to river headwaters in Grey County. The

Six Nations claim rightful ownership of the land, which it says was

granted to Brant in 1784 and never legally surrendered. They asserted

jurisdiction over the entire Haldimand Tract where only municipal

regulations (defined by the Province of Ontario) obtain. The HDI

claims a share in the benefit of what is being done on the land, a

rent by leases and payments or fees. Opponents refused to pay fees

for development on land they have legal title to. Construction was

halted by native protests. Historically, the British Crown purchased

aboriginal title from the Mississauga, then gave the land to the Six

Nations. Aboriginal title was then extinguished under terms of the

Proclamation of 1763. See also INDIANS.

– J –

JAMES BAY AGREEMENT. A treaty signed in 1975 between Qué-

bec and Cree and Inuit living in northern Québec adjacent to James

Bay, the agreement transferred native rights from the Cree and Inuit

to Québec in return for $225 million, hunting and fishing rights, and

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JAPANESE CANADIANS • 233

substantial self-government. The treaty was negotiated to permit the

Québec government to build the massive James Bay Project.

JAMES BAY PROJECT. A massive construction project to harness

the hydroelectric potential of several river systems emptying into

James Bay was announced in 1971 by Québec Premier Robert

Bourassa. The James Bay Project diverted rivers, created one of the

world’s largest underground powerhouses, and built dams and dikes.

In addition, it created numerous ecological problems that have af-

fected the Cree and Inuit, as well as the natural environment. Most of

the power generated is sold to customers in the United States.

JAPANESE CANADIANS. The first Japanese immigrant (Manzo Na-

gano) settled in Victoria, British Columbia, in 1877, and by 1914

there were 10,000 permanent Japanese residents in Canada. They,

like other Asians, faced discrimination mainly in the workplace.

In 1907, at Canada’s insistence, Japan limited male immigration to

Canada at 400. In 1928, Canada restricted Japanese immigration to

150 per year. Legal Japanese immigration did not resume until 1967.

In 1986, the census found 40,240 Japanese in Canada.

The Japanese define themselves in Canada as Issei, those who ar-

rived 1877–1928; Nisei, their Canadian-born children; and Sansei, the

third generation, born in the 1950s and 1960s. Japanese immigrants

came from various prefectures, backgrounds and classes. The Issei

were predominantly of peasant or fishing cultures; they came from

very poor circumstances. The Nisei were conscious of their loss of

culture, inculcating in the children the dress and manners of a world

regretfully lost by coming to the New World. Those arriving after

1967 were educated members of the industrial urban middle class.

Exclusion and discrimination marked Japanese progress in Can-

ada. The Japanese settled in certain enclaves: Cumberland, Vancou-

ver Island, where the males worked as coal miners; Powell Street,

Vancouver, where many males were employed in the Hastings

Mill; and Steveston (a fishing community), Mission City, Tofino,

and Prince Rupert, all in British Columbia. In some locations, they

built schools, community halls, Christian churches, and Buddhist and

Shinto temples. They formed clubs and cooperatives. Japanese oper-

ated a whaling station in the Queen Charlotte Islands.

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234 • JAPANESE CANADIANS

On 24 February 1942, during World War II, by federal Order-

in-Council 1486, the government ordered the removal of persons

of Japanese ethnicity irrespective of nationality residing within 100

miles of the Pacific coast. This was done for two reasons: protec-

tion of the white society from Japanese attack, and protection of

the Japanese from white reprisals for events at Pearl Harbor, Hong

Kong, Singapore, and elsewhere. Thus, 20,881 Japanese Canadians

(75 percent were Canadian nationals) were moved to detention camps

in eastern British Columbia, Alberta, and Manitoba. Property was

expropriated and sold by Order-in-Council 469, declared 19 January

1943. Attempted deportations continued until 1946, when the process

was stopped owing to mass public protest.

The Sansei have built a new kind of Canada for the Japanese. More

than 75 percent have married non-Japanese. Of the fourth generation,

the integration into mainstream Canadian life is characteristic, as the

distance of time and space grows between the first generation and

their own.

Owing to pressure from the National Association of Japanese

Canadians, the Government of Canada, following the example of

the United States, issued a formal apology and provided (partial)

financial compensation. On 22 September 1988, Prime Minister

Brian Mulroney delivered the official apology and announced the

Redress Settlement in the House of Commons (enacted by Order-

in-Council 31 October 1988). The settlement called for individual

monetary compensation, a community fund, and creation of the

Canadian Race Relations Foundation (1997). This measure by the

government acknowledged wartime injustices suffered by the Jap-

anese community. Among prominent internees were novelist Joy

Kogawa, who wrote about this in Naomi’s Road (1986); Shizuye

Takashima, who did similarly in A Child’s Prison Camp (1971);

architect Raymond Moriyama; and scientist, environmentalist, and

television broadcaster David Suzuki. Kogawa and Takashima have

written tales of innocence lost, spinning memories into literary

gold. In Hiroshima Immigrants (2008), historian Michiko Midge

Ayukawa traces family history (and the central role of women)

from the circumstances that precipitated emigration to the lives of

migrants who settled in Canada.

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JESUITS • 235

JESUIT RELATIONS. The published works by the Jesuits familiarly

known as the Jesuit Relations were annual reports from the superiors

of the Jesuit missions in Canada to the provincials of the order in

France. In addition to their distinctly religious portions, they include

much firsthand information about the natural resources of the regions

that were the centers of missionary work; the manners, customs, and

language of the native inhabitants; the incessant intertribal wars of

the Iroquois and other Canadian native peoples; and the zeal and

tribulations of the missionary priests. They provide a main source for

information on the destruction of Huronia. Occasional comments on

relations with the English colonies in New England and the Dutch

colonies of New York add to the value of the reports as source books

for the early history of the areas. See also HISTORICAL WRITING.

JESUITS. The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, played a profound role in

Canadian (and North American) religious and social history. Given

by the French government in 1632 the monopoly of conversion of the

native population, the Jesuits took over from the Recollets the full

control of the Huronia mission; the mission ended in consequence of

the Iroquois wars. The Jesuits were also notably involved in the ex-

ploration of North America, Père Jacques Marquette being the most

notable Jesuit explorer. The Jesuits assumed control of the religion of

Canadian settlements, both urban and rural. Their seminary at Qué-

bec became Laval University, the first university in Canada. Another

prominent institution of higher learning was Loyola College, which

in the 1960s became part of Concordia University, Montréal. The

apostolic vicar responsible for the educational and religious growth

of the colony was François-Xavier de Montmorency Laval.

The Jesuits became prominent landholders in New France and in

some areas could control, under law, one-seventh of all lands. The or-

der was suppressed in the late 18th century but reestablished in Qué-

bec in 1842. In 1888, by statute, compensation to the Jesuits for loss of

these lands (sequestered by the crown) was finally agreed upon. How

to allot the compensation, which had to be spent on education, was

a difficult question. In the end, $400,000 was the value set on these

lands. The act granted $70,000 to the province’s Protestant schools;

the rest was divided within the Catholic community at the pope’s

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236 • JOHNSON, EMILY PAULINE

discretion. In Québec, this was a satisfactory solution. In Ontario,

however, the Orange Order was enraged, charging the Government

of Québec with inviting the pope to intervene in Canadian affairs.

The prime minister, John A. Macdonald, refused to disallow the act,

coming as it did, he argued, within clear provincial powers (especially

land regulation and schools). See also BRÉBEUF, ST. JEAN DE;

STE.-MARIE AMONG THE HURONS; UNIVERSITIES.

JOHNSON, EMILY PAULINE (1861–1913). A poet and performer,

Johnson was a Mohawk, born in Six Nations Reserve near Brantford,

Ontario. She began a career of platform entertainment in 1893. On

stage, she recited her poems. Her popularity rose as she crossed

Canada and the United States, and she became known as “The Mo-

hawk Princess.” A book of her poems titled Legends of Vancouver

was published in 1911.

JOLLIET, LOUIS (1645–1700). An explorer, fur trader, and land-

holder under the seigneurial system, Jolliet was born in Québec and

educated at the Jesuit college there. Jolliet abandoned ecclesiastical

life for the fur trade. He was the discoverer, with Père Jacques Mar-

quette, of the Mississippi River in 1673; they navigated downriver to

within 400 miles of the Gulf of Mexico. Marquette’s narrative tells

this story; Jolliet’s, sadly, was lost. As a reward for his discoveries,

Jolliet was granted Anticosti Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. He

settled there with his family. He also made voyages to Hudson Bay

(1679) and Labrador (1694). In 1680, he was appointed royal hy-

drographer and royal pilot. In 1697, he obtained a seigneurie, Jolliet,

in Beauce County, Québec.

JUNG, DOUGLAS (1924–2002). Born in Victoria, British Colum-

bia, Jung graduated from Victoria High School, joined the Canadian

Army, and served in Force 136 of the British-led Special Operations

Executive behind enemy lines during World War II. Later an im-

migration lawyer, he became MP for Vancouver Center in 1957. He

was the first MP of Chinese extraction. He later represented Canada

on the Legal Committee of the UN.

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KING, WILLIAM LYON MACKENZIE • 237

– K –

KING, WILLIAM LYON MACKENZIE (1874–1950). A lawyer

and politician, and grandson of William Lyon Mackenzie, King

was born in Berlin (now Kitchener), Ontario, and was educated at

Kitchener Collegiate Institute. He studied law at the University of

Toronto, then undertook post-graduate work at the University of

Chicago and Harvard. An expert on labor relations and social theory,

he became a Liberal member of Parliament for Waterloo North in

1908 and minister of labor (1909–11). Defeated in the 1911 election,

he was for a time a labor advisor to J. D. Rockefeller. In 1919, King

reentered Canadian federal politics and became leader of the Liberal

Party, succeeding Wilfrid Laurier. He was elected prime minister in

1921 and served 1921–26, 1926–30, and 1935–48. His term in office

is the longest in Canadian history.

A great conciliator and master of brokerage politics, King fought

against Governor General Julian Byng in a celebrated constitutional

struggle in 1925–26. He often was at odds with the provinces, but he

agreed to transfer resource management to them. He underestimated

the depth of the Canadian economic depression that came with the

Wall Street crash of October 1929. He called an election for July

1930 and was defeated. Richard Bedford Bennett, former opposi-

tion leader, formed a Conservative administration with a healthy

majority. King was back in power in 1935 under the slogan “It’s King

or Chaos.” He was far less interventionist than Bennett and eschewed

demands from the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation for di-

rect action and government takeover of the Canadian economy. King

fought against Alberta’s post-1935 legislation for fiscal power and

control, and won. But he transferred ownership of resources to the

provinces. On the tricky subject of federal relations with provincial

capitals and governments, he established, as a point of reference and

inquiry, the Royal Commission of Federal-Provincial Relations (the

Rowell-Sirois Commission).

Often seen as a socially irresponsible prime minister, King was ac-

tually a brilliant parliamentary strategist. An avowed nationalist and

opposed to military armament, he objected to British imperial jingoism

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238 • KLONDIKE GOLD RUSH

and feared American military and economic domination during

World War II. He strongly supported the concept of dominion au-

tonomy within the British Empire. He met Adolph Hitler in Germany

and told him bluntly that Canada would not stand idly by in the face

of German aggression. He led Canada toward and into war, launched

a military rearmament plan, and worked with British Prime Minister

Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. on

wartime cooperation. In Canada, military production increased dur-

ing the war, Japanese Canadians were interned as security risks,

and labor shortages were rectified by the Military Conscription Act

of 1944. All of these were controversial. King’s slogan on the subject

of conscription had been “not necessarily conscription, but conscrip-

tion if necessary.”

King had a strong interest in spiritualism, for which he was often

ridiculed. He built a delightful retreat in Kingsmere, north of Ottawa,

in Québec. He authored Industry and Humanity (1918; rev. 1935 and

1947). In 1948, he resigned from office. His boyhood residence in

Kitchener, Woodside, is a Parks Canada site. See also NEW DEAL.

KLONDIKE GOLD RUSH. The last great North American gold rush

followed reports in August 1896 of discoveries in the Yukon. The

location was Bonanza Creek, a tributary of the Klondike River near

what became Dawson City (now Dawson). The discoverers were

George Washington Carmack and his Indian friends Skookum Jim

Mason and Tagish Charlie. In the next few years, miners poured in,

mainly by ship up the Lynn Canal to Dyea or Skagway and thence

through the Chilkoot and White passes and down 800 kilometers of

the Lewes and Yukon rivers to Dawson. Others made their way up

the Stikine River or even by way of the Mackenzie and Porcupine.

In July 1897, Klondike excitement neared its height. Thousands went

over White and Dyea passes, and business in all the coastal cities,

including Victoria and Vancouver, were greatly stimulated. Facili-

ties of communication were increased by building the narrow-gauge

White Pass Railway and establishment of a line of steamers from

Whitehorse to Dawson. Dawson rapidly acquired a population of

25,000. Annual gold production rose to a maximum in 1900 of over

35 million grams. The Canadian government responded to the inrush

of people and potential disorder by sending in a contingent of North

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KREVER TAINTED BLOOD INQUIRY • 239

West Mounted Police under Samuel Steele. The Yukon Territory

was proclaimed 13 June 1898. Rival claims of Canada and the United

States to the ports at the head of Lynn Canal, based on differing inter-

pretations of the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1825, became of immedi-

ate importance. They were finally settled in favor of the United States

by a joint Anglo-American tribunal appointed in 1903 to define the

Alaska boundary between the two sovereignties. The Klondike

story will always be one of hopes achieved and of hopes dashed, of

fabled wealth and undoubted poverty. Its heyday is recalled in the

reconstituted city of Dawson, a heritage site, and its memory is still

kindled by the poetry of the banking clerk Robert Service.

KOREAN CONFLICT. The Korean War is often referred to as

Canada’s forgotten war. When North Korea invaded South Korea on

25 June 1950, the United States invoked the Charter of the United

Nations (UN) and passed a resolution through the Security Council

to aid South Korea in repelling the invader. Canada responded along

with 15 other UN members to aid in the effort to stop North Korean

aggression. Canada was not officially at war; that is why, in Canada,

it is called “the Korean conflict.”

Canada sent destroyers to Korea (one of which was HMCS Haida)

to aid in the naval support forces stationed there. Three Canadian

warships were always on station, serving with Commonwealth and

U.S. units. The Royal Canadian Air Force provided an air transport

squadron to assist the sending of supplies to UN forces on the Korean

peninsula; in addition, a number of Canadian fighter pilots flew with

U.S. Air Force squadrons and were responsible for the destruction of

North Korean aircraft. However, the largest contingent of forces was

sent by the army; more than 21,000 army personnel served in Korea.

Of the 490,000 UN casualties, 1,588 were Canadians, including 516

dead. Canadian troops performed very well and won distinction for

stopping Chinese attacks at Kap’ Yong in April 1951.

KREVER TAINTED BLOOD INQUIRY. The Krever Inquiry was

an investigation (1993–97) and subsequent report into contaminated

blood supplies used for transfusion. In July 1981, Acquired Immune

Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) was identified among homosexuals in

Los Angeles; in July 1982, AIDS was identified among hemophiliacs

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