Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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200 • HEAD, FRANCIS BOND

for the rethinking of Canadian government and methods of power.

First elected to the House of Commons in 1993, as Reform Party

candidate for the riding of Calgary West, he left Parliament for a

while, becoming president of the National Citizens Coalition, a

prominent advocacy organization. In 2002, he became leader of the

opposition by winning the leadership of the Canadian Alliance and

subsequently a by-election in Calgary Southwest. He was now back

in Ottawa in the House of Commons. In 2003, his star still in the as-

cendant, he co-founded the Conservative Party of Canada and then

won the new party’s leadership. In the 2004 election, he increased

that party’s standing in the House of Commons by 25 seats.

On 23 January 2006, Harper led the party to power by winning

124 seats in the federal election, ending 12 years of Liberal rule.

He continued the policy of maintaining Canadian Armed Forces

in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-backed stabilization of

Afghanistan. His government undertook measures to strengthen the

materiel of the Canadian Forces. He instituted tax reforms. In the

October 2008 general election, seeking a majority, he won only a

strengthened minority government (143 of 308 seats). Then followed

difficult times as the economic crisis of late 2008 brought a crisis

of confidence in his leadership and administration, the events of the

U.S.-led recession being largely downplayed by him and his adminis-

tration as not applicable to Canada. Meanwhile, Harper had led other

parties as well as his own into the accepted view that Québec should

be recognized within the Canadian confederation as a “nation.” On

behalf of the government and the people of Canada, he also issued an

apology to the First Nations for historic wrongs, a heart-rending act

of contrition performed in Parliament. Late in 2008, his government

faced defeat with the formation of a fragile coalition of the Liber-

als and the New Democratic Party, nominally backed by the Parti

Québécois, but by getting a prorogation of Parliament, a crisis was

averted. A second prorogation occurred in early 2010, sparking small

but nationwide protests.

HEAD, FRANCIS BOND (1793–1875). Head was lieutenant governor

of Upper Canada in 1835–38. In the years immediately preceding

the Rebellions of 1837, Head’s policies and hostility to reform as-

sisted in creating tension between the factions. His action in sending

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HEALTH CARE • 201

almost all regular troops to Lower Canada in November 1837 was,

by his own admission, designed to provoke a reaction. He was unable

to handle the rebellion and was returned to England upon resignation.

HEALTH CARE. Public health insurance has become a keystone of

Canadian identity and belonging, and has become central to how

Canadians see themselves in comparison to the United States. This

system, which involves the federal government and all the provincial

governments, owes its existence to the political circumstances and

political parties of the 1950s and 1960s. The agenda was driven by

left-of-center political interests. These were the years of general ac-

ceptance and adoption; they followed earlier initiatives. This national

plan now faces the challenges of universality versus private health

care, or a joint system of care (public/private). Health care now is the

largest component of any federal or provincial government’s expen-

ditures in Canada.

Public health care was not a major government agenda item prior

to World War II. The matter had been discussed in Ottawa and in

provincial capitals. In 1943, public health was considered part of so-

cial reconstruction for the postwar world. Such a measure was intro-

duced in 1945 in Ottawa by the Liberal government, but provinces,

jealous of their fiscal rights, blocked implementation. When in 1944

the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation won its first election in

Saskatchewan, with T. C. Douglas as premier, the promise to make

health insurance one of the primary goals led, in 1947, to the first

public hospital insurance plan in North America. Alberta and Brit-

ish Columbia soon followed Saskatchewan’s lead. Health care pro-

fessionals did fight against implementation in certain circumstances,

but the power of governments carried the day, and the message was

easy to proclaim to the voting publics. In 1966, the federal govern-

ment introduced a federal-provincial cost-sharing program for medi-

cal insurance. Universal, comprehensive principles of the plan were

based on the Saskatchewan model. By 1971, universal health care

existed in every province. But strife occurred. Doctors were in revolt

in Saskatchewan in 1947. They did so likewise in Québec in 1970.

Confrontation with physicians in Ontario marked the passage of the

Canada Health Act (1984). This banned extra billing and user fees

considered inimical to principles of access and affordability.

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202 • HEARNE, SAMUEL

The Canada Health Act, as important to Canadians as any piece

of legislation, represents five principles: public administration,

comprehensive care including hospitalization, universal entitlement,

equal access, and portability within Canada. By no means does this

Act provide every needed medical procedure or type of care, but it

provides the essentials. And it is Canada-wide.

The legislation provided for financial sanctions for provincial

noncompliance on the five principles of the act. Various framework

agreements between the federal government and the provinces (ex-

cept Québec, which makes its own bilateral deal with Ottawa) have

been signed since the passing of the Canada Health Act. The financial

crisis of the 1990s meant a certain impoverishment of the system, but

in 1999 the federal budget injected $11.5 billion for health care over

five years. In 2001, the Royal Commission on the Future of Health

Care, chaired by Roy Romonow, reinforced the Canadian apprecia-

tion of the vital significance of universal health care. No system is

free from criticism or demand for private health care at user expense,

and in the United States the Canadian system has been praised or

pilloried depending on the message to be delivered. The brain drain

south of Canadian doctors, nurses, and other health care providers

has been cited in the United States as showing the faults and failures

of the Canadian system and what is called, incorrectly, “socialized

medicine.” In fact, the system is one of pre-paid insurance, with in-

dividuals, corporations, and governments providing funds.

In some provinces, such as Québec, pharmacare exists. Oversight

of pharmaceuticals and costs of prescription drugs exists in Canada.

Assistance is given for optical work. Then there are ambulance and

mobility services. The network of support is considerable, and it

therefore forms one of the intercircling rings with unemployment

insurance, the Canada Pension Plan, and the Old Age Security ben-

efits that form a greater system of state-partnered support. Some

would call this, not incorrectly, a welfare state. See also KREVER

TAINTED BLOOD INQUIRY; ST. JOHN AMBULANCE.

HEARNE, SAMUEL (1745–1792). An explorer of the Canadian north,

Hearne was born in London, England. At the age of 20, he joined

the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) and was sent to a post (now

Churchill, Manitoba) at the mouth of the Churchill River. In 1769,

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HERSCHEL ISLAND • 203

on instructions, he examined the western coast of Hudson Bay, and

then traveled inland from the fort to the south of Chesterfield Inlet

and to Dubawnt Lake. In 1770, he set out for the Coppermine River

on the Arctic Ocean, returning home via Great Slave Lake. Hearne

thus became the first white man to reach the Arctic overland from

Hudson Bay and the first explorer to give a clear account of the bar-

ren lands and of Inuit life in these latitudes.

In 1774, Hearne built Cumberland House, the HBC’s first post

in the interior, as a counter to North West Company trade expan-

sion. In 1775, he became governor of Fort Prince of Wales and was

captured by the French naval officer Comte de La Pérouse in 1782.

He was taken to France, where he was released on condition that his

account of his Arctic travels be published. It appeared in 1795 as A

Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern

Ocean, one of the giants of Canadian northern exploration litera-

ture. In 1783, the HBC sent him to reestablish a post at Churchill.

He remained there until 1787, when ill health forced him to return to

England, where he died. See also EXPLORATION.

HENDAY, ANTHONY (?–1762). An English fur trader and explorer

in Canada, working for the Hudson’s Bay Company, Henday was

the first white to visit the Blackfoot Confederacy and to report on

their customs and habits. He left Hudson Bay in 1754 to travel to the

Saskatchewan River and made important explorations in what is now

the province of Alberta. See also EXPLORATION; FUR TRADE.

HENRY, PIERRE (1904–1979). A missionary of the Oblate of Mary

Immaculate (OMI) order, Father Henry lived among the Inuit and

built a stone church at Pelly Bay, or Arvilikjuak (“the big place with

bowhead whites”). He was joined in 1952 by Father Franz Van de

Velde, and the priests traveled, lived, and worked among the Inuit of

the eastern Central Arctic until 1965. The Inuit called Father Henry

“Kayualuk” because of his full red beard.

HERSCHEL ISLAND. The Yukon Territory’s only coastal island,

Herschel was known to the Inuvialuit as Qilciqtatuk (“island”) but

was renamed in 1826 by explorer John Franklin for his friend, the

astronomer John Herschel (1792–1871). American whalers in search

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204 • HIBERNIA

of bowhead arrived in the 1880s, and in 1894–95, when whaling

was at its peak, 15 whale ships and 1,500 men and women wintered

there at Pauline Cove. By 1907, the whale population exhausted,

whalers ceased their appearance. Meanwhile, Anglican missionaries

established a mission (1897), and the Royal Canadian Mounted

Police exerted sovereignty over the island (1903). European diseases,

introduced by the whalers, diminished the Inuit population in the

Beaufort area from 2,000 to about 200 at the time whaling ended.

Herschel Island became a territorial park in 1987.

HIBERNIA. A petroleum field 315 kilometers east of St. John’s, New-

foundland, Hibernia was discovered in 1979 and developed in the

1990s at great expense to governments and partner investors. The tur-

bulent history of this megaproject is marked by the 1992 crisis, when

Gulf Canada withdrew from the project. The Canadian government

contributed $1 billion in grants and $1.8 billion in loan guarantees.

Against pressure to halt the project, the government also became an

8.5 percent shareholder. Hibernia Management and Development

Co. is the owner; its partners are Mobil Oil Canada (33.1 percent),

Chevron Canada (27), Petro-Canada (20), federally owned Canada

Hibernia Holding Corp. (8.5), and Norsk Hydro of Norway (5). The

first crude was drawn on 17 November 1997, thereby adding New-

foundland and Labrador to the Canadian oil-producing provinces

(Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, and Ontario being the

others). The first well produced 45,000 barrels per day, twice the es-

timate. Once 80 wells are drilled, over an 18-year lifespan, the daily

average will be 135,000–170,000 barrels.

HILL, DANIEL GRAFTON, III (1923–2003). A human rights trail-

blazer in Ontario and Canada, Hill was born in Independence, Mis-

souri, the son of an African Methodist preacher and a great-grandson

of American slaves. He graduated from Howard University, where

his father was a dean of theology, and he served in the U.S. Army

during World War II, but his military experience with segregation

left him disgusted. He married a white woman and in 1953 they

relocated to Toronto as a preferred place for an interracial couple

to live. He completed a doctorate at the University of Toronto with

his research entitled “Negroes in Toronto” (1960). He later penned

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HISTORICAL WRITING • 205

The Freedom Seekers: Blacks in Early Canada, a groundbreak-

ing popular work stressing achievement rather than oppression. A

forceful, dignified person and a champion of the oppressed, he was

founding director of the Ontario Human Rights Commission. He was

an Ontario ombudsperson and a champion for aboriginal rights who

regarded First Nations peoples as the most victimized constituency

in the country. Hill founded the Ontario Black History Society in

1978. His son Daniel Hill is author of the noted novel The Book of

Negroes (2007).

HINCKS, FRANCIS (1807–1885). Reform-minded newspaper editor

and railway tycoon Sir Francis Hincks founded the Canada West

newspaper in 1837. He joined forces with Louis H. Lafontaine in

promoting responsible government, opposed by Lord Sydenham.

As premier of the Province of Canada in 1851, Hincks proposed

reciprocity with the United States and initiated negotiations. A key

player in the Grand Trunk Railway, he left public office in 1854 be-

cause of dubious financial dealings. Hincks was minister of finance

in John A. Macdonald’s first cabinet in 1869 and attended to bank-

ing and currency regulations. He left politics in 1874, retired to busi-

ness, and published his Reminiscences in 1884.

HIND EXPEDITION. See PALLISER EXPEDITION.

HISTORICAL WRITING. The first Canadian histories were com-

piled in the French language by priests, lay brothers, and colony

builders, including Marc Lescarbot, Gabriel Sagard, and Samuel de

Champlain. Lescarbot is regarded as the first historian of Canada;

his work was titled Histoire de la Nouvelle France (1609). Pierre-

François Charlevoix, a Jesuit, is credited with writing the first per-

spective on French development in Canada. His Histoire de descrip-

tion générale de la Nouvelle France (1744) was based on the Jesuit

Relations—the collective name given to a series of reports sent by

Jesuit missionaries in Québec to the Society of Jesus in Paris, some

of which were published in 1858 (73 volumes, covering the period

1610–1791, were published in English translation between 1896 and

1901). Jesuits continued as the premier Canadian historians, a trend

identified later in the work of the secular Québec national historian

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206 • HISTORICAL WRITING

François-Xavier Garneau in the mid-19th century. New France had

no printing houses or publishers; in consequence, these early histo-

ries were published in France.

The first English-language histories of Canada date from the pe-

riod following the conquest of 1759. The War of 1812 accentuated

the desires of Upper Canadians and Maritimers to write new histories

of British North America. As the 19th century progressed, historians

of what later became Canada wrote what could be called Britannic

Canadian history. W. H. Kingsford’s 10-volume History of Canada

(1887–98) is a comprehensive account of the political and consti-

tutional development of diverse provinces prior to and following

confederation. J. C. Dent’s The Last Forty Years (1881) eulogized

moderate reform.

Changing international relations and Canadian military activi-

ties overseas, first in the South African War (Boer War), then in

World War I, accentuated Canadian nationalism. In addition, the

economic development of Canada—in forestry, mining, agriculture,

railways, and shipping—invited Canadians to rewrite their history in

more structural terms. Joseph Pope edited the memoirs of John A.

Macdonald. Oscar Douglas Skelton, a civil servant, compiled biog-

raphies of A. T. Galt and Wilfrid Laurier. Legal and constitutional

expert W.P.M. Kennedy wrote histories of constitutional develop-

ment to the 1940s. Works on labor by H. A. Logan, on Canadian-

American relations by H. L. Keenleyside, and on Commonwealth

relations by R. G. Trotter and Chester Martin were part of the diver-

sification of research that marked the 1920s.

In the years before and after World War II, historiography blos-

somed in the writings of several well-known and nationally com-

mitted university teachers. These include Harold Adams Innis,

Donald Grant Creighton, Arthur R. M. Lower, Frank Underhill,

W. L. Morton, C. P. Stacey, and toward the end of this era, J.M.S

(Maurice) Careless, Margaret Ormsby, William J. Eccles, Kenneth

McNaught, and Peter B. Waite. Arthur R. M. Lower became an

expert on Canada’s hinterland, on the history of Canadian forests

and timber trades. His Colony to Nation (1946) stressed moderate re-

form, North American nationalism, and reconciliation of the French

and English linguistic communities. His Canadians in the Making

(1958) pioneered Canadian social history. Frank Underhill was an

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HISTORICAL WRITING • 207

advocate of left-wing and center-left positions on Canadian political

progress. George Stanley predates W. K. Morton in the special study

of indigenous peoples, especially the Métis, the treaties of western

Canada, and the intervention (civil and military) of the Canadian

state in western Canada. His Birth of Western Canada (1937) opened

historical studies of this region and was not supplanted in terms of

Métis history until Marcel Giraud’s The Métis in the Canadian West

(1945; 1st English edition 1986). Manitoba-born W. L. Morton

stressed the importance of the Canadian north and west, each with

its own legitimate perspectives, in The Progressive Party in Canada

(1950) and Manitoba (1957). With Kingdom of Canada (1963), Mor-

ton became the great “Red Tory” of Canadian scholarship, stressing

Canada’s unique experience as a Nordic people, different from the

Americans, with a state interventionist economy and strong govern-

ment support for weaker groups and regions. Métis and the French-

speaking Canadians outside of Québec were his heroes; separatists

and neo-conservative continentalists, his villains. He was editor of

the significant series published by McClelland and Stewart com-

missioned to celebrate the Canadian centenary, 1967. Morton wrote

The Critical Years: The Union of British North America, 1857–1873

(1964). He also wrote various important works about confederation

in an historical context. The period prior to the centennial of Cana-

dian confederation sparked a number of works. P. B. Waite compiled

The Life and Times of Confederation, 1864–1867 (1962), an imagi-

native work based on the study of newspaper opinions on and about

the idea of Canada, including much dissenting opinion.

Other writers followed to reinterpret Canada’s past. Maurice Care-

less, in his biography of George Brown of the Globe newspaper,

Brown of the Globe (vol. 1, 1959; vol. 2, 1963), and in other books,

stressed the role of Toronto-led Upper Canadian reform in building

the country and nurturing its economy. He also developed a thesis

on multitiered metropolitanism, analyzing the efficacy of regional-

ism and multiculturalism and showing the futility of searching for

a single Canadian identity or culture. His metropolitan-hinterland

thesis helped spawn urban history as an academic study. Also of note

is Craig Brown’s Robert Laird Borden: A Biography (vol. 1, 1975;

vol. 2, 1980), on one of Canada’s prime ministers. William Eccles,

writer on the French regime in books such as Frontenac, the Courtier

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208 • HISTORICAL WRITING

Governor (1959), stressed France’s geopolitical and military interest

in North America, criticized Innis’s staples approach, and later em-

phasized the ongoing role of native people. Margaret Ormsby turned

her attention to British Columbia and the Pacific in the centennial

appreciation British Columbia: A History (1958). Kenneth Mc-

Naught stressed the strength of an English-based social democratic

tradition in A Prophet in Politics: A Biography of J. S. Woodsworth

(1959). Beginning in the 1950s, Québec secular historians, after the

corporatist-clerical historiography of Abbé Lionel Groulx, took an

increasing interest in their own history. Particularly important are

works by Michel Brunet, Gustave Lanctot, and Fernand Ouellet.

Gerry Friesen’s Canadian Prairies: A History (1984) and Ken

Coates’s and William Morrison’s writings on the Yukon and on

other northern themes, inspired by the work of Morris Zaslow, have

reflected a growing consciousness of regional affairs. Similarly, the

Atlantic Shipping Project, funded by the Canada Council for the

Arts and based on British Board of Trade papers, examined the role

of shipping and seaborne trades in the history of Atlantic shipping

and ports. The history of the maritime provinces has also been served

by writers such as Ernest Forbes, Ken Pryke, George Rawlyk, Judith

Fingard, and earlier W. S. MacNutt. Barry Gough wrote histories of

Pacific maritime activities and the War of 1812 on the Great Lakes.

H. Viv Nelles, Christopher Armstrong, Michael Bliss, Peter Oliver,

and others have written on Ontario regionalism and resources.

Gilbert Tucker, Gerald Graham, Desmond Morton, S. F. Wise,

J. L. Granatstein, Terry Copp, and Roger Sarty have made contribu-

tions to histories of the Canadian Army, Navy, and Air Force. Blair

Neatby, Jack Granatstein, Robert Bothwell, and John English have

written on mid-20th century political and administrative problems

and personalities, all bearing on foreign policy and Commonwealth

relations. A talented biographer, as well as being connected to the

Liberal Party, John English wrote biographies of Lester Pearson

and Pierre Trudeau. The 1960s, a period not only of drugs, sex,

and rock and roll, has been featured as a decade of rebelliousness

by Bryan D. Palmer in Canada’s 1960s: The Ironies of Identity in a

Rebellious Era (2009).

Ramsay Cook and Susan Mann Trofimenkoff have written widely

of French Canadian nationalism and cultural movements. Repre-

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HOODLESS, ADELAIDE HUNTER • 209

sentative works are Cook’s The Politics of John W. Dafoe and the

Free Press (1963) and Trofimenkoff’s Action Française: French-

Canadian Nationalism in the 1920s (1975). Historians have stressed

the long story of aboriginal groups and their relationship with “set-

tler” societies; these scholars include Bruce Trigger, Cornelius Jae-

nen, Barry Gough, Sylvia Van Kirk, Jennifer Brown, Robin Fisher,

James R. Miller, Olive Dickason, A. J. Ray, Brian Slattery, John Mil-

loy, David McNab, and Bruce Hodgins. Noted cultural historians are

Maria Tippett and Jonathan Vance. Douglas Cole and Bruce Trigger

have made distinctive contributions to cross-cultural history. Histo-

rians such as Douglas McCalla have confronted the staples approach

to Canadian economic history, substituting a concept of complex in-

ternal activity that generated growth from expanding commercial and

agrarian roots. Carl Berger and others explored Canada’s intellectual

past, Greg Kealey and Bryan Palmer its working relations, Suzanne

Zeller its scientific basis, and Cynthia Commachio aspects of family,

gender, and politics. Popular historians include Pierre Berton, Peter

Newman, Christopher Moore, and Charlotte Gray. Some historians

not of the academy have crossed into creative nonfiction but are

omitted from this analysis.

Canada’s History Magazine (formerly The Beaver, founded

1920) is a popular historical journal of great longevity and ongoing

strength, reviewing most prominent public books in Canadian his-

tory. Of greater significance to new scholarship are the Canadian

Historical Review (1919), founded by historian George Wrong, and

Journal of Canadian Studies (1966); both are important national

scholarly publications. Acadiensis (1970), BC Studies (1969), and

Ontario History (1908) are some of the many prominent regional his-

torical periodicals. The American Journal of Canadian Studies is ar-

guably the best foreign academic periodical covering Canada’s past.

HOODLESS, ADELAIDE HUNTER (1857–1910). Home economist

and teacher Adelaide Hoodless was born near St. George, Ontario.

After the death of her son from contaminated milk in 1889, she

dedicated her life to teaching girls and women about the sciences of

child care and home management. She has been recognized as sole

or joint founder of the Women’s Institute (1897), National Young

Women’s Christian Association, Macdonald Institute, National

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