Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada
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180 • FOX, TERRY
Hudson Bay. He failed. There was no passage that far south. Even
so, his 1631 voyage in the 70-ton pinnace Charles was remarkable.
He entered the mouth of the Nelson River, coasted the west shore
of Hudson Bay, and added to the geographical knowledge of these
lands. He was back in England after six months, having lost not one
member of his crew. Fox was a student of voyage literature, and the
book he compiled, North-west Fox, or Fox from the North-west Pas-
sage (London 1635), contained abstract accounts of the voyages of
John Cabot, Martin Frobisher, John Davis, James Knight, Henry
Hudson, William Baffin, and others. The engraved map of the polar
regions that accompanies his book is regarded as one of the most
interesting and important documents in the history of Arctic explora-
tion. Of note regarding his 1631 voyage is the rivalry of the Bristol
expedition of Thomas James, equally unsuccessful in finding the
South Sea.
FOX, TERRY (1959–1981). An amputee hero and icon, Fox in 1980
intended a cross-Canada Marathon of Hope for cancer research. He
began in St. John’s, Newfoundland, on 12 April and ended on 1
September outside Thunder Bay, Ontario. He ran a marathon every
day, 42.2 km (26 miles), across six provinces, for 143 consecutive
days (total 3,339 miles). Cancer recurred in his lungs, and he died
nine months later in New Westminster. His motives were pure and
his influence has been pervasive. His legacy lives on in the raising
of millions for cancer research in Canada and many other countries.
FRANKLIN, JOHN (1786–1847). Royal Navy explorer Sir John
Franklin was present at the battles of Copenhagen (1801) and Trafal-
gar (1805). He was an able nautical surveyor and led three expedi-
tions to the Arctic region. In 1819, Franklin explored the mouth of
the Coppermine River while leading his first Arctic expedition. He
led his second expedition to the Arctic in 1825–26. In 1845, Franklin
led the best-equipped sailing expedition to enter the Arctic up to that
time. He discovered a Northwest Passage, but he and all officers and
men died during the expedition. Thirty-nine expeditions were sent
out to find Franklin and his men, leading to a more full exploration
of the Arctic. A search party led by Robert McClure crossed the
Northwest Passage during an expedition from 1850 to 1854. Search-
ers eventually found evidence of Franklin’s party and reconstructed
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FREE TRADE • 181
some of the details of his voyage. The remains of Franklin have never
been found; the cause of his death is unknown. The others in his party
died of such causes as scurvy, botulism, lead poisoning, fatigue, ex-
posure, starvation, and possibly Inuit attack and murder.
FRASER, SIMON (1776–1862). Born in Bennington, New York (later
Vermont), 1776, to a loyalist, military family, Fraser entered North
West Company service at age 16. By 1802, he was a partner. After
1804, and union with rivals headed by Alexander Mackenzie, the
explorer pushed into north-central British Columbia. He called this
area New Caledonia, for it reminded him of his mother’s description
of Scotland. Fraser played roles in countering American and Rus-
sian threats from the Pacific coast. He was also a giant in business
and community history. Fort McLeod (McLeod Lake) in 1805, Fort
St. James (Stuart Lake) in 1806, Fort Fraser (Fraser Lake) in 1806,
and Fort George (where Fraser and Nechako Rivers converge) in
1807 were built under his direction. Meanwhile, John Stuart, James
McDougall, and Jules Quesnel made discoveries often attributed to
their boss. Fraser, egotistical, diminished Mackenzie’s discoveries
by claiming Mackenzie was often asleep in his canoe while others
gathered data. Mackenzie’s reputation survived Fraser’s belittling.
Fraser is best known for his river journey downstream to Mus-
queam, on the lower Fraser River, in 1808. It was a passage made
possible only by native advice, Fraser’s grit, and his employers’
insistence that the stream south of the Nechako River be traced. Fra-
ser proved that the river named after him was not the Columbia. He
named a tributary of the Fraser after the explorer David Thompson.
Fraser served in the Stormont militia in the rebellion in Lower Can-
ada in November 1838. Near Beauharnois, he damaged a knee se-
verely in a fall. He was incapacitated and reduced to penury. He died
penniless on 19 April 1862 and is buried in St. Andrews, Ontario.
FREE TRADE. Free trade is not a recent phenomenon in Canadian-
U.S. relations. The first reciprocal arrangements (in areas of seas,
forest, and farm products) include the Reciprocity Treaty (1854, ab-
rogated by the United States 1866) and the negotiated but unratified
free trade accord of 1911 (Wilfrid Laurier’s Liberals were defeated
on this issue). In 1935, Canadian-U.S. negotiations received approval
as the Canada-U.S. Trade Agreement Act (1936).
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182 • FRENCH CANADIAN IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
In the 1980s, the Progressive Conservatives promoted a new
free trade agreement with the United States. The Canada-U.S. pact
was signed by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and U.S. President
Ronald Reagan on 2 January 1988. Mulroney argued that new mar-
kets would open to Canadian business in a global (especially U.S.-
dominated) economy. Opponents including organized labor, rightly
fearing loss of Canadian jobs, bitterly but unsuccessfully fought
the measure. The Council on Chief Executives and its president,
Thomas d’Aquino, lobbied successfully in support of free trade.
The Canada-United States Free Trade Implementation Act received
assent 30 December 1988 and became effective 1 January 1989.
FRENCH CANADIAN IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED
STATES. It has been estimated that in 1840–1930, 900,000 French
Canadians left Canada for the United States. In 1900, hardly a
French Canadian or Acadian family did not have a relative living in
the United States, and this emigration has been claimed as a demo-
graphic, social, and cultural drain. The emigration had a profound
effect on French Canada. English Canadians, who also went to the
United States in great numbers during the same period, were less
noticeable and assimilated more rapidly into American society than
did French-speaking Roman Catholics.
Poor economic conditions in Québec were one reason for the
migration; the lure of wealth and employment in the United States,
especially New England, was of a similar moment. Some young men
attempted to avoid military conscription by going to the United
States during World War I. But it was the pull of industrial oppor-
tunities that attracted most emigrants. It is estimated that between
1784 and 1844, Québec’s population increased 400 percent. An ex-
cess of population tied to the agricultural growth of French Canada
in the 19th century caused an economic crisis: thousands of landless
farmers sought work on agricultural acreage that did not increase
proportionally to their needs and numbers. Although Québec settle-
ment stretched out from the St. Lawrence valley to peripheral regions
(the Laurentians, the Saguenay, the lower St. Lawrence and Mata-
pedia, the Ottawa Valley and the Eastern Townships), some French
Canadians would emigrate to eastern Ontario, to Manitoba, Sas-
katchewan, and Alberta. But these places also suffered from lack
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FROBISHER, MARTIN • 183
of fertility, difficulty of access to markets, short growing seasons,
and interrelated factors. In Québec itself, agricultural profitability
declined; indebtedness increased. Credit became hard to obtain. A
combination of poverty, overpopulation, debt, and infertile soils led
to French Canadian emigration. The jobs of industrial United States
solved many problems for this stressed population. Most of the emi-
grants were rural and poor.
The growth of railways to the United States spurred the process of
emigration but took French Canadians not much farther than northern
New York State and New England. Massachusetts was the general
beneficiary. Many went to work in the cotton mills and shoe factories
of New England. Family and parochial ties stimulated and channeled
emigration. Thus French Canadians of Southbridge, Massachusetts,
came mainly from Sorel and Saint-Ours. This pattern minimized
emotional and cultural costs attendant to emigration.
The drain of population was seen by Québec elites as a danger
to French Canadian society. Some, however, saw the extension
of French Canadian society to the United States as extending the
boundaries of Roman Catholicism. Many Roman Catholic clergy and
nuns left to serve in Franco-American communities. Some American
cities and towns had communities called “Little Canada.” They had
their own parishes, professionals, newspapers, bilingual parochial
schools, and organizations. Most Franco-Americans lived in dif-
ficult economic circumstances, and most had low-paid jobs. Franco-
Americans were largely ghettoized. They do not seem to have mixed
easily with Irish Roman Catholics.
The emigration left enduring marks on French Canada and New
England. Many persons returned to Canada and projected a positive
image of the United States.
FROBISHER, MARTIN (1535?–1594). One of the first English navi-
gators to search for a Northwest Passage to India and Asia, Frobisher
became known as one of the greatest Elizabethan mariners, renowned
for courage, resourcefulness, and seamanship. He fought against the
Spanish Armada and was knighted for his services. His three at-
tempts to reach Asia by sailing west extended geographic knowledge.
On the first voyage in 1576, he rounded southern Greenland, visited
Labrador, and became the first European to sail into a deep bay on
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184 • FRONT DE LIBÉRATION DE QUÉBEC
Baffin Island, which he thought to be a strait. This bay now bears his
name. Frobisher took back to England rocks that some thought was
gold ore. This touched off a scramble to join in his second voyage
in 1577. Frobisher annexed the country to England on this trip and
returned with 180 metric tons of rock. The continuing lure of gold led
to the third voyage. In 1578, he sailed with 15 ships and 41 miners.
He entered what later became Hudson Strait but made no further at-
tempts at discovery. This time, he brought back more ore that turned
out to be of little value. He distinguished himself in naval combat
against the Spanish Armada in 1588.
FRONT DE LIBÉRATION DE QUÉBEC (FLQ). A terrorist organi-
zation of revolutionaries, ultra-leftists, and anti-capitalists, the FLQ
was founded in March 1963. The FLQ consisted of cells. Some mem-
bers had training with the Palestine Liberation Organization. Two
of the movement’s theorists, Pierre Vallières and Charles Gagnon,
were arrested, sparking off the October Crisis of 1970. The tactics
of the FLQ were bombing (mainly mailboxes), kidnapping, and mur-
der. The escalation of violence in October 1970 led to the Québec
government requesting Canada to call in the Canadian Army in aid
to the civil power. The War Measures Act was implemented by
the federal government. The FLQ were forced into submission; 20
people were convicted and safe passage to Cuba was secured for sev-
eral of the leaders. Vallières, author of Nègres Blancs d’Amerique, is
considered the philosopher of the organization.
FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, COMTE DE (LOUIS DE BUADE)
(1622–1698). A French army officer, Frontenac was appointed gov-
ernor general of French possessions in North America in 1672. He
had two lengthy terms as governor general, though in 1682 he was
recalled briefly on the charge of misgovernment. He promoted sta-
bilization and expansion of New France’s frontiers and the growth
of the Canadian fur trade based in Montréal. Trade and defense
marched hand in hand. He built Fort Frontenac (Kingston) on Lake
Ontario and a number of other fur trading and military posts. He
enlarged New France’s frontiers to the Mississippi Valley, launched
raids on New England, resisted the English at Québec in 1690, and
broke the power of the Iroquois in 1696. One of the most turbulent
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FRONTIER • 185
figures in the history of New France, he was the architect of French
expansion in North America.
FRONTIER. In its earliest phase, the Canadian frontier was a com-
mercial and later political extension of British and French interests,
and on the west coast of Spanish, Russian, British, and U.S. influ-
ences. The term frontier has many meanings and interpretations. The
various frontiers of Canada might be regarded as zones of influence.
Largely oceanic or maritime in nature, Canada’s early frontiers be-
came beachheads, with extensive links to the interior via rivers and
lakes. New France’s frontier was a trading and military projection
of power. After 1763, the frontier was largely a British corporate
arrangement with the chartered Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC)
dominating northern waters and lands, its monopoly area being
Rupert’s Land. From Montréal, by contrast, the rival North West
Company opened up an individualistic trading frontier, which ended
in 1821 with the merger with the HBC. In British Columbia, after an
open zone frontier rivalry (involving Great Britain, Spain, the United
States, and Russia), British corporate monopoly and colonization
came in the form of the colony of Vancouver Island, established in
1849 under HBC auspices. In 1859, the HBC license of monopoly
ended and British Columbia became an open frontier under British
colonial control. American influences in the 1858 gold rush were
thwarted by executive power and a show of armed force. Much the
same occurred in the Yukon in 1898 with the Klondike gold rush.
In 1869 in Manitoba and 1885 in Saskatchewan, local resistance
to Canadian authority ended with the armed closing of the frontier.
While the American frontier has been thought to represent indi-
vidualistic pursuit leading to democratic and populist consequences,
as Frederick Jackson Turner argued, the Canadian frontier tends to
reflect corporate and government dominance and armed support for
the civil power to keep foreign rivals out, to ensure “peace, order, and
good government.” The northern extension of Canada’s dominion
throughout the 20th century was a continuance of traditions devel-
oped under first French and then British auspices. Turner argued that
the American frontier was closed in 1890, and this possibly implies
that the Canadian western and northern frontiers took on new value
in the years that followed.
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186 • FUR TRADE
FUR TRADE. The staple of the early Canadian economy until the
1830s, the fur trade was central to Canadian prosperity. French com-
panies held monopolies, which passed from hand to hand. By 1608,
the trade was based in Québec, and the French had extensive links
with the Huron and Algonquin. The Iroquois, great fur trappers,
were able to interrupt the northwestern trade in the 1640s. Fronte-
nac stabilized the southern frontier, allowing the French to penetrate
toward Hudson Bay, the Illinois country, and the Mississippi River.
By 1759, the French dominated most fur-bearing areas of eastern
North America except the northern American colonies of Britain.
In 1670, the English Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) received its
charter from Charles II, creating its monopoly rights over Rupert’s
Land, virtually the Canadian northwest. The Montréal-based North
West Company, and its rival, Alexander Mackenzie’s XY Com-
pany, fought against the HBC for many years. In 1804, the North
West Company and Mackenzie’s company merged. The North West
Company merged with the HBC in 1821.
Although the fur trade diminished in areas of settlement, for it
was antagonistic to settlement and vice versa, it remained central to
the commercial and political evolution of the forested areas of North
America, including mountain trenches, and from parkland areas well
into deep and watery forests, particularly the boreal or northern forest
of North America. In Canada, the fur trade was central to the political
economy developed by European colonizers and the native peoples in
a symbiotic relationship that also resulted in mixed blood (in Canada,
Métis) offspring, families, and communities. The industrial revolu-
tion crossed the Atlantic under sail, and the products of this revolu-
tion were used to engender and continue the trade: the iron trap,
the iron-tipped spear, and the iron knife, in native hands, increased
aboriginal capacities to extend the trade into new areas of hunting
and extraction. Arms, ammunition, liquor, fabrics, and foodstuffs
entered North America at the same time. Because natives were keen
and sharp traders, equity of exchange was demanded and expected.
Indian technology and means of survival aided the European intru-
sion into native lands; native advice and guidance were often central
to exploration and to growth of trade. In fact, the exploration of North
America is more often than not commensurate with the fur trade and
pursuit of its consolidation and extension.
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FUR TRADE • 187
The canoe, principally the birch bark canoe, an aboriginal inven-
tion, became the vehicle for importation of goods and export of furs.
Cottonwood canoes were used in the western cordillera; cedar canoes
were used in the Pacific coast region. In the Aleutian Islands and
along the Gulf of Alaska and southeast Alaska shore, the badarka, of
skin on wood frame, was also used. The packhorse used after 1740s
and the dog travois aided and abetted the trade. Steam navigation, be-
ginning in the 1830s, increased the trade; so did railways, especially
for the marketing of skins such as buffalo and wolf. But technologi-
cal innovation hurried the end of the fur trade in North America. By
1890, and the general closure of the settlement frontiers of North
America, the fur trade was on the decline, and native peoples had
been reduced to reserves (reservations) or not given status.
The English traded in furs in Newfoundland from the time of
Cabot, but this branch of the economy was ancillary to the cod fish-
ery. The French traded in furs at the mouth of the Saguenay, on the
St. Lawrence River, in the 1530s. This became the first focal point
of the trade stretching west and south to Georgian Bay. It embraced
the Huron, Iroquois, Neutrals, and others. The St. Lawrence River
and its hinterlands became a fur trade empire. The French estab-
lished a series of companies to monopolize the fur trade. Champlain,
exploring from Québec, determined that Montréal Island would be a
fine place for a summer fur post; a settlement was established there
in 1642. Montréal, the head of oceanic traffic, became the center of
Canadian fur trade expansion, shipping, and banking in consequence
of the search for beaver and other furs. Into the interior (pays d’en
haut), the traders ( courier de bois), voyagers, and Indian guides
and laborers extended the trade. The fur trade was the lifeblood of
New France and of Canada. The French administration in Canada
set up the system of licensing, so that designated traders would have
designated places of trade and extraction. Related to military posts
and alliances with Indians, the system was designed to prevent cut-
throat competition and, equally important, to promote the growth of
the trade into new areas. In certain places, French fur trade expan-
sion aided French Roman Catholic designs, principally those of the
Jesuits. The search for souls and furs was personified when Father
Jacques Marquette voyaged to the Mississippi River in the company
of Canadian trader Louis Jolliet.
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188 • FUR TRADE
Many French and Canadian explorers were fur traders, the most
notable being Radisson and Groseilliers (who went into the service
of the HBC), Nicolet, Joliet, and LaVerendrye, so that by the 1750s,
the French posts were west as far as the Assiniboine, Souris, and Sas-
katchewan rivers and south toward St. Louis and New Orleans. After
the conquest of Canada by the British, the French remained in the
trade and worked in new association with English, Irish, and Scottish
traders. Harold Innis has argued that the Seven Years War was a
struggle between the fur trade and settlement in North America, and
that the British conquest extended the fur trade in northern latitudes
and retarded settlement. Fur traders as explorers in the decades after
the conquest were numerous and important: Peter Pond, Alexander
Mackenzie, David Thompson, and others made discoveries and
extended travels on exploration to open up new watersheds, acquire
new trading partners, and keep rival traders out. The thrust to Atha-
basca is a fine example of this type of discovery and exploration; that
through Rocky Mountain passes, by Mackenzie and Thompson and
others, is another. These traders worked through the areas drained
by the rivers and lakes of the boreal forest and the Rocky Mountain
foothills.
Canadian business infrastructure, including transportation, bank-
ing, finance, and currency, was laid down in the 18th century due
to the fur trade. Many urban centers of modern Canada, such as
Montréal, Edmonton, and Victoria, had their origins as fur trad-
ing posts. Fur-trading explorers such as Samuel Hearne, Alexan-
der Mackenzie, and Simon Fraser recorded information about the
North American landmass. Mackenzie, Alexander Henry, Alexan-
der Henry the Younger, and Daniel Harmon were among the fur
traders who kept detailed notes that became, eventually, books.
These are also important records of exploration, geography, and
ethnology.
Historical scholarship now shows that the fur trade depended on
native energies and commitments. Natives traded furs, principally
beaver, for industrial materials, especially ironware, and for liquor
and tobacco. Traders were obliged to meet native demands, and a
partnership in trade existed. Other studies show a tendency toward
a fur-holding monopoly, and this was true in the French and British
periods. Liaisons between European traders and native peoples re-
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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA • 189
sulted in the evolution of the Métis, or mixed bloods, now recognized
within the terms of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. A
unique fur trade of Canada was the Northwest Coast trade in the sea
otter, the pelts being sold by ship owners in Macao and Canton. In
the 20th century, fur farming was extensive in Canada. Fur trading
continues in Canada, but its size has been greatly diminished because
of international pressure by animal rights groups.
– G –
GALT, ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817–1893). High-spirited and
feisty, Sir Alexander Galt was a businessman and politician. Before
his election to the Legislative Assembly in 1849, he was involved in
the promotion of the Grand Trunk Railway. Disgruntled, he signed
the Annexation Manifesto in 1849. Galt pressed for the federation
of British North America as early as 1857, and in 1858 he joined the
Cartier-Macdonald government on the condition that the government
support federation. As minister of finance, he introduced the Galt
tariff in 1859, the first Canadian tariff barrier that affected British
goods. It has been called a Canadian declaration of independence.
Galt successfully defended Canada’s right to set tariffs against the
protests of British interests. He was also a delegate to both the Char-
lottetown and Québec conferences and played an important role in
drafting the British North American Act. Galt retired as finance
minister in 1868 and from parliament in 1872. He was appointed the
first Canadian high commissioner to London in 1880, a position he
held until 1883. This was Canada’s first diplomatic representation
abroad.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. Canada’s unremembered
explorers are the members of the Geological Survey of Canada,
who set out to draw the complete map of Canada in the 19th century.
The key figures were William Logan, Alfred Selwyn, George Mer-
cer Dawson, and Robert Bell. Not only were they mapmakers, and
true successors to Samuel de Champlain, Samuel Hearne, and Al-
exander Mackenzie; they were draughtsmen, photographers, natural
history enthusiasts, ethnologists, and biologists.
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